[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [General history and culture](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general) › [India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953) › c8.s9 # India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c8.s9: Section 9. Dwellings India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c8.s9 - **Language:** English ### Section 9. Dwellings ### [c8.s9.1](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9.1) Pāṇini acquaints us with the principal architectural patterns of buildings found in a big city, \*e.g.\* \*rāja-sabhā\* (the king's council-hall, II.4.23), \*geha\*, \*gṛiha\* (houses, III.1.144), \*nivāsa\* and \*nikāyya\* (residential buildings or quarters, III.1.129), \*chhātrī-śālā\* (hostels for women, VI.2.86), words ending in \*agāra\*, like \*koshṭhāgāra\* (royal store-houses, IV.4.70), \*nishadyā\* (rest-houses, III.3.99), \*dvāra\* (city-gates, IV.3.86), \*parikhā\* (moats, V.1.17), \*kapāṭa\* (door leaves, III.2.54) and \*parigha\* (bolts, VIII.2.22). ### [c8.s9.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9.2) \*ŚĀLĀ\*—\*Śālā\* was used for a variety of buildings, \*e.g.\* \*sabhā\* (council-hall II.4.24, \*Aśālā cha\*); \*chhātrī-śālā\* (female hostel, VI.2.86); \*gośālā\* and \*kharaśālā\* (stables for cows and asses, IV. 3.35); the last one being also found in the \*Atharvaveda\* and \*Brāhmaṇas\* (\*Vedic Index\*, II.376). \*Śālā\* was also used for a granary room for storing corn with an opening called \*śālā-bila\* (VI.2.102). It was a Vedic word (\*Vedic Index\*, II.376). ### [c8.s9.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9.3) \*HOUSES\*—The Vedic word for home was \*gṛiha\*. Pāṇini also uses the term \*gṛiha\* (III.1.144) which the \*Kāśikā\* explains as \*veśma\* or homestead, or as the women in residence there (\*tātsthyād-dārāścha\*), implying that the women constituted principally the household. Three other terms were also used, \*viz.\* \*geha\* (III.1.144), \*agāra\* (III.3.79) and \*kshaya\* (VI.1.201; cf. Sabhāparva, 33.16, \*ajāyata Yādukshaye\*, Kṛishṇa born in the house of Yadu). \*Agāra\* occurs once in the \*Kaushītaki Upanishad\* (\*Vedic Index\*, 1.7). ### [c8.s9.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9.4) Pāṇini refers to officers (\*niyukta\*), in charge of buildings ending in \*agāra\* (IV.4.69-70), \*e.g.\* \*bhāṇḍāgārika\*, \*devāgārika\*, \*koshṭhāgārika\* (\*Kāśikā\*). \*Agāra\* indicated a larger building with several parts, one of which (\*agār-aika-deśa\*) was called \*praghaṇa\* or \*praghāṇa\* (III.3.79), explained by the \*Kāśikā\* as the rooms in the outer gateway of a building (\*bāhya-dvāra-prakoshṭha\*). (Cf. Pali \*paghana\*, a covered terrace before a house, \*Vin.\* II.153; \*paghanaṁ nāma yaṁ nikkhamantā cha pavisantā cha pādehi hananti\*, Buddhaghosha). In the \*Udaya Jātaka\* there is a reference to \*koṭṭhaka\* which the commentary translates as \*dvāra-koṭṭhaka\* (\*Jāt.\* Vol. IV. 106). Dr. Coomaraswamy understands \*dvāra-koṭṭhaka\* specifically as gatehouses, which formed part of the gateways in the wall of a city and of which several examples are found in ancient Indian art (Early Indian Architecture, 'Cities and City-Gates,' p. 209, \*Eastern Art Annual\*, 1930, Vol. 11; Skt. \*alinda\*). ### [c8.s9.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9.5) NISHADYĀ—In \*sūtra\*, III.3.99 Pāṇini gives \*nishadyā\* as a specific word (\*saṁjñā\*) meaning a rest-house. The \*niṁsi (d) yās\* (resting places) are referred to by Aśoka (Pillar Edict VII). The Nāgarjunī Hill Caves were built for providing shelter to monks during rains (\*vāsa-nisidiyāya\*=\*varshā-nishadyāyai\*). ### [c8.s9.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9.6) NIKĀYYA AND NIKĀYA—These are synonymous of \*nivāsa\*, a dwelling place (III.1.129; III.3.341), and are in this sense peculiarly Pāṇinian words. It is not certain whether they were used to denote only the residence of monks. In the \*Manu Smṛiti\* we find the word \*deva-nikāya\* (I.36), taken by the commentators as \*deva-nivāsa-sthāna\*. \*Nikāya\* occurs once in the \*Yajurveda\*, but as the name of a \*chhanda\* denoting Vāyu (\*Śatapatha\*, VIII.5.2.5, commenting on \*Yaj.\*, XV.5). The \*Arthaśāstra\* also uses \*nikāya\* once, but in quite a different sense, \*viz.\* \*saṅgha\* (Text. II.4, p. 55). ### [c8.s9.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9.7) EKAŚĀLIKA—The word \*eka-śālika\*, or its optional form \*aikaśālika\*, was of some practical importance. Pāṇini derives it as \*eka-śālā iva\*, 'that which is like one (man's) building' (V.3.109). It did not mean the owner of a single house, but it denoted a dwelling-place, which in respect of its use was reserved as one man's building, \*i.e.\* not intended for public use. The Tinduka-vana of queen Mallikā, wife of king Prasenjit, in the vicinity of Śrāvastī (\*Dīgha Nikāya\*, I. p. 278) was formerly \*eka-sālaka\* used as her own pleasance or for her guests. Such a residence was called \*rājāgāraka\* (Brahmajāla Sutta). Subsequently this park-house was thrown open to the Buddhist community (\*bahū sālā katā\*; \*Sumaṅgala-Vilāsinī\*, II. p. 365). It was a matter of some consequence in the social life of that period whether a park-residence of some rich man was of the nature of \*ekaśālika\*, i.e. reserved for personal use, or was thrown open for public use. We know from the story of Anāthapiṇḍika how he converted the garden of Prince Jeta which used to be \*eka-śālika\* (i.e. reserved for his own use) into a public residence for the use of the entire Buddhist Saṁgha. ### [c8.s9.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9.8) MATERIALS—Pāṇini refers to bricks among building materials in the phrase \*ishṭaka-chita\*, denoting something constructed with bricks (VI.3.65). The Pāli literature also mentions \*iṭṭhakā-vaḍḍhaki\* or brick-layers. (Dr. Coomaraswamy, City and City-Gates, p. 211; \*Jāt.\* VI. p. 333). ### [c8.s9.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9.9) The roof of a house is called \*chhadis\*, probably denoting the thatched covering known as \*chhappar\*. The word \*chhādisheya\* refers to the material with which the \*chhadis\* was made (V.1.13). The actual doorway (\*dvāra\*) opened or closed with a pair of leaves called \*kapāṭa\*. Reference is made to daring burglars (\*kapāṭaghna chaura\*) battering against the leaves of a door-way to secure entrance (III.2.54). The \*Mahākaṇha Jātaka\* refers to battering against the palace-door (\*kavāṭe ṭhapetvā\*, IV.182). The closed door panels were secured from inside by a bar drawn across called \*parigha\* or \*paligha\* (VIII.2.22), which meant an iron bolt (\*Vedic Index\*, I.494). ### [c8.s9.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9.10) Besides the residential and public buildings, there were market-places (\*āpaṇa\*, III.3.119) where commercial commodities (\*paṇya\*) were stocked and saleable goods (\*krayya\*, VI.1.82) were displayed. ### [c8.s9.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9.11) Pāṇini also refers to the old Vedic god Vāstoshpati (IV.2.32), the presiding deity of \*vāstu\* or homestead. Two older words, \*kshaya\*, 'abode' (VI.1.201) and \*āvasatha\* (V.4.23), are also mentioned. The precise sense of \*āvasatha\* appears to be a place for the reception of guests, especially Brāhmaṇas and others on the occasion of feasts and sacrifices (\*Vedic Index\*, I.66). According to Pāṇini: 'One who lives in an \*āvasatha\* is called \*āvasathika\*' (IV.4.74). The religious guest-house was identical with that part of a householder's dwelling in which the household fire (\*āvasathya agni\*) was established.¹ ### [c8.s9.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9.12) ¹ We are indebted to Patañjali for preserving two important architectural terms, viz., \*āmalakī\* and \*valabhī\* (Bhāshya, VI.2.82; III.132) denoting the pinnacle and the cornice-mouldings respectively, which figure so prominently in the earliest representations of buildings in the sculpture of Bharhut and Sanchi. ## Cites (12) - [Aṣṭādhyāyī](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.vyakarana.astadhyayi-school.astadhyayi.2.4.23) — Pāṇini, Sanskrit - [Jātakatthavaṇṇanā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.khuddaka.jataka!jatakatthavannana*cst.11.4.p3) — Pāli - [Jātaka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.khuddaka.jataka.458) — Pāli - [Cullavagga](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.vp.khandhaka.cullavagga.6.3.5.8) — Pāli - [Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.artha.kautilya.2.4) — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit - [Mānava Dharmaśāstra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.manu.1.36) — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit - [Tevijjasutta](https://indike.org/pramana/in.bauddha.theravada.sp.digha.13.83.1) — Pāli - [Mahābhārata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.vyasa.2.33.16) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Śatapathabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.satapatha.8.5.2.5) — Yājñavalkya & Śāṇḍilya (Vedic teacher), Sanskrit - [Kauṣītakibrāhmaṇopaniṣad](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.upanisad.mukhya.kausitaki) — Sanskrit - [Yajurveda](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.other.yajurveda) — Sanskrit - [Atharvavedasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.atharva) — Atharvan & Aṅgiras, Sanskrit --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.general.agrawala-1953.c8.s9) · Pramāṇa