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South India and her Muhammadan Invaders c15: Appendix B. Ibn Batuta in South India

South India and her Muhammadan Invaders c15

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Appendix B. Ibn Batuta in South India

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¹ A summary account of this part of Ibn Batuta's work appeared in the *Madras Journal of Literature and Science* for 1888-89 rendered from the French by Mrs. L. Fletcher (pp. 37-60). I am indebted for this translation to Miss Ida Gunther, B.A., L.T., Lecturer, Queen Mary's College for Women, Madras. This is translated from vol. iv. of the French edition of Ibn Batuta by Messrs. C. Defremery and B. L. Sanguinettie.

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*The mountain of Serendil (Adam's Peak), Ceylon.* (Lecture VI, pp. 175)

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It is one of the highest mountains in the world and can be seen from the open sea even at a distance of nine days' journey from it. As we climb the peak, its lower slopes are hidden from view by clouds. There are on this summit, many trees that never shed their leaves, flowers of different colours, and a red rose as large as the palm of one's hand. It is said that on the petals of this rose is an inscription containing the name of the Almighty God and the name of his Prophet. Two mountain roads lead to the foot of Adam: Father's road, and Mother's road, otherwise called Adam and Eve. Mother's road is an easy road by which pilgrims return. But those who take it going there are not considered to have made the pilgrimage. Father's road is rough and difficult. Near the gate at the foot of the mountain is a grotto called Iskander (Alexander), and a spring of water.

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The ancients have hewn in the rock a sort of step by which one ascends the mountain. They have also planted iron spikes and suspended chains on to them which one holds while making the ascent. Those chains are ten in number; two near the gate at the foot of the mountain; after these seven others which are linked one on to the other; then the tenth, ‘the chain of the profession of faith’ (Mussalman), so called because the person who reaches it and looks down below will be seized with hallucination and fear of falling, and he will repeat the words: ‘I declare that there is no other god but God, and that Mahomet is his Prophet’. When you have got beyond this tenth chain, you come to a road kept in bad repair. The cavern of Nadir is seven miles from the tenth chain. It stands in a spacious place near a spring, also called khidhr, full of fish. Nobody catches fish there. Near by are two basins hewn in the rocks on either side of the road. In the khidhr grotto, pilgrims leave their belongings and then go another two miles up to the summit of the mountain where they find the foot.

Description of the Foot

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The noble foot mark—that of our father Adam—is to be seen in a black high rock standing in an open place. The foot print on the stone is deeply impressed; it is eleven spans long. Formerly the people of China used to go there, they cut out of the rock the impression of the big toe and the one next to it, and deposited this fragment in a temple in the town of Leitoun (Tseuthoung) to which they go from distant places. In the rock bearing the foot print three hollows have been dug in which idolatrous pilgrims deposit gold and precious stones and pearls. Fakirs who arrive at the grotto of khidhr, try to outbeat one another in finding what lies in these hollows. As for us, we found only a few small stones and a little gold which we gave to our guide. It is usual for pilgrims to spend three days in the cavern of khidhr, and during that period to visit the foot morning and evening. We did the same.

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At the end of three days, we returned by ‘Mother’s Road’, and encamped near the grotto of Cheim, which is the same as Seth, son of Adam. We afterwards stayed near the bay full of fish, and the villages of Cormolah, of Djbercavern, of Diedineouch and of Atkalendjeh. It is in this last named place that the sheik Abon’abd Allah, son of the Khafif, spent the winter. All these villages and stations are situated on the mountain. Near the foot of the latter, on this same road, stands ‘dirakht rewan,’ ‘the walking tree’, an ancient tree that does not lose a single leaf. I have not met any one who has seen its leaves. It is given the prefix ‘walking’ because the person who looks at it from the mountain top, thinks it stands far away at the foot of the mountain, whilst he who looks at it from below, believes it to be in quite the opposite place. I met a troop of Yogees who never leave the foot of the mountain but are waiting for the leaves of this tree to fall. It stands in an absolutely inaccessible spot. Idolators say: ‘whosoever eats the leaves of this tree, recovers his youth, even though he be an old man.’ But this is false, another of their lies.

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Beneath this mountain is the great bay containing precious stones. Its waters are extremely blue. From here we marched for two days as far as the large town of Dinewar, near the sea, inhabited by merchants. Dinewar (Dinēśvara) contains, a large temple, with an idol that bears the name of the town. In this temple there are about 1,000 Brahmans and Yogees, and about 500 women, born of idolatrous fathers, who sing and dance the whole night before the god. The town and its revenues are the particular property of the idol; and those who live in the temple and those who visit it, are fed on that money. The idol is made of gold, the size of a man. It has two large rubies in place of eyes, which, I am told, shine like lanterns during the night.

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We left Dinewar for the little town of Kaly (Galle) six parasangs (about thirty-six miles or so) distant. A Mussalman, the coxswain of the boat Ibrahim, whom we met there, entertained us at his house. Then we set out for Calenbou (Colombo), one of the largest and most beautiful towns in the island of Serendib. Djalesty, the Vezir prince of the sea, lives there with about 500 Abyssinians. Three days after leaving Colombo, we arrived at Batthalah, already mentioned, and visited the Sultan spoken above. I met the coxswain of the boat Ibrahim and we set out for the country of Ma’bar. The wind was strong and the water was on the point of entering the vessel. Without a skilled captain, we drifted near certain rocks and the ship was all but wrecked; then we entered shallow water, the vessel grounded and we were face to face with death. The passengers threw their belongings into the sea and bade farewell to all. We cut down the mast of the ship and threw it into the sea. The sailors made a raft with the plank. We were two parasangs distant from the shore. I wanted to go down on to the raft, but I had with me two concubines and two friends, and the latter said to me: ‘Will you go down and leave us?’ I liked them better than myself, and said ‘Go down both of you, as well as the young girl whom I love.’ The other young girl said: ‘I know to swim well. I will tie myself with a cord to the little boat and swim with those people.’ My two comrades descended; one of them was Mohamed, son of Ferhan Attaouzery, and the other, an Egyptian. One of the young girls was with them, the second swam. The sailors made a raft with the help of which they swam. I gave them all the valuables I possessed, personal property, jewels and amber. They got to land safe and well, for the wind helped them. I remained on the vessel, the master of which reached the shore on a plank. The sailors set to work to construct four rafts, but the night before they were finished, the sea broke upon us. Then, several idolaters came in one of their boats to fetch us. We went ashore with them to the land of Ma’bar, and told them we were friends of their Sultan to whom they paid tribute. They wrote to inform him of this. The sovereign was engaged in a war with the infidels at a distance of two days’ march; I sent him a letter telling what had happened to me. The idolaters in question led us into a large wood, and brought us a fruit resembling the watermelon; it grows on the dwarf palm tree. Inside this fruit is a kind of down (or cotton) containing a honied substance which is extracted and made into a sort of pastry called ‘tell’ just like sugar. They served us with excellent fish. We remained there for three days, at the end of which an amir named Kamar-ud-din, accompanied by a detachment of horse and foot soldiers arrived from the Sultan. They brought one palanquin and six horses. I mounted a horse, so did my friend, the master of the ship, and one of the two young girls; the other was carried in the palanquin. We reached the fort of Arcot (Hercatou) where we spent the night. There I left the young girls, a party of my slaves and my companions. The second day we reached the camp of the Sultan.

The Sultan of Ma'bar

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He was Ghiyath eddin Addameghany (Ghiyazu-d-din Dhāmaghani) originally a horseman in the service of Malic Modjir, son of Abourredidja, one of the officers of Sultan Mohamed; then he served the Amir Hadjy, son of the Sayyid Sultan Djelal eddin (Jalalu-d-din). At last, he was invested with royalty. Before this he was called Siradj eddin; but after his accession he took the name of Ghiyath eddin. Formerly, the country of Ma'bar had submitted to the authority of Sultan Mohammed, king of Dihly (Delhi). A revolt was stirred up amongst his followers by my father-in-law, the Sheriff Djelal eddin Ahsan Shah (Sharif Jalalu-d-din Ahsan Shah), who reigned there for five years, after which he was killed and replaced by one of his amirs, Alauddin Odeidjy (Alau-d-din Udauji), who governed for one year. At the end of this time he set out to conquer the infidels; he took a considerable amount of riches and ample spoils from them, and returned to his own state. The following year, he led a second expedition against the idolaters, routed them and massacred a large number. The same day on which he inflicted this disaster upon them, it happened that he took off his helmet in order to drink; an arrow shot by an unknown hand struck him and he died on the field. His son-in-law Kothb-eddin (Qutbu-d-din Firoz) was placed upon the throne; but as his conduct was generally disapproved of, he was killed at the end of forty days. The Sultan Ghiyath-eddin was invested with authority; he married the daughter of the Sultan and Sheriff Djelal eddin. It is the sister of this same girl that I had married at Dihly (Delhi).

My Arrival at the (Court of) Sultan Ghiyath Eddin

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When we approached the neighbourhood of his camp, he sent one of his chamberlains to meet us. The Sultan was seated in a wooden tower. . . . It is the custom throughout India, for nobody to enter the presence of the Sovereign bare-footed. Now, I had no boots, but an idolater gave me a pair, though there were a certain number of Mussalmans in this place. I was surprised that idolaters showed greater generosity than they (Mussalmans). I then presented myself before the Sultan who ordered me to sit down, sent for the kadhi (Kazi) and pilgrim Sadr Azzeman Beha-eddin (Sadru-l-Zaman Bahau-d-din) and lodged me in three tents pitched in the neighbourhood of his. The people of this country called these tents ‘Khiyam’ (plural of ‘Khaimah’). The Sultan sent me carpets as well as the viands used in the country, that is to say, rice and meat (curry). The custom in this country, as in our own, is to serve sour milk after the meal.

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After all that, I had an interview with the Sultan. I proposed that he should send an army to the Maldive islands. He agreed to this proposal and ordered some ships to be got ready. He also resolved to send a present to the Sultan of the Maldives, some robes of honour and gifts to the amirs and viziers. He entrusted me with the drawing up of a marriage contract with the Sultan’s sister; finally he ordered three vessels to be filled with alms for the poor of the island and said to me: ‘You will return at the end of five days.’ The admiral Khodjah Serlec said to him: ‘It is not possible to sail for the Maldives until three months hence.’ Then the Sultan said to me: ‘Since this is the case, come to Fattan (Paṭṭaṇam) in order that we might end this expedition and return to our capital of Moutrah (Madura). It is from there that they will set out.’ I went and stayed there with him, and, whilst waiting, sent for my concubines and my friends.

The March of the Sultan, and His Shameful Conduct in Killing Women and Children

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The country we had to traverse was a wood formed of trees and reeds, so overgrown, that nobody could penetrate it. The Sultan ordered every army man, great or small, to carry a hatchet and cut down these obstacles. When the camp had been arranged, he set out on horseback to the forest, accompanied by soldiers. They cut down trees from morning till midday. Then food was served for everybody; after that they began hewing till evening. Every infidel found in the forest was taken prisoner. They sharpened stakes at both ends and made their captives carry them on their shoulders. Each was accompanied by his wife and children and they were thus led to the camp. It is the custom of these people to surround their camp with a palisade having four gates. They call it *catcar* round the habitation of the king. Outside the principal boundary, they erected a platform about a half *brasse* high and lighted a fire on it during the night. Slaves and sentinels spent the night there holding a fagot of very slender reeds in their hands. When infidels approached to attack the camp during the night, they lighted the fagots. The brightness of the flames converted night into day, and the horsemen set out in pursuit of the infidel.

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The next morning, the Hindu prisoners were divided into four sections and taken to each of the four gates of the great *catcar*. There, on the stakes they had carried, the prisoners were impaled. Afterwards their wives were killed and tied by their hair to these pales. Little children were massacred on the bosoms of their mothers and their corpses left there. Then, the camp was raised, and they started cutting down the trees of another forest. In the same manner did they treat their later Hindu prisoners. This is shameful conduct such as I have not known any other sovereign guilty of. It is for this that God hastened the death of Ghiyath-eddin (Ghiyazu-d-din).

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One day whilst the Kadhi (Kazi) and I were having our food with (Ghiyazu-d-din), the Kazi to his right and I to his left, an infidel was brought before him accompanied by his wife and son aged seven years. The Sultan made a sign with his hand to the executioners to cut off the head of this man; then he said to them in Arabic: ‘and the son and the wife.’ They cut off their heads and I turned my eyes away. When I looked again, I saw their heads lying on the ground.

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I was another time with the Sultan Ghiyath-eddin (Ghiyazu-d-din) when a Hindu was brought into his presence. He uttered words I did not understand, and immediately several of his followers drew their daggers. I rose hurriedly, and he said to me; ‘Where are you going’? I replied: ‘I am going to say my afternoon (4 o'clock) prayers.’ He understood my reason, smiled, and ordered the hands and feet of the idolater to be cut off. On my return I found the unfortunate swimming in his blood.

The Victory That Ghiyath-Eddin Won Over the Infidel Which is One of the Greatest Successes of Islam

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In the neighbourhood of his territory was an infidel sovereign named Belal Deo (Baḷḷāḷa Dēva), who was one of the principal Hindu Kings. His army exceeded hundred thousand men, and he had besides, twenty thousand Mussalmans formed of criminals and slaves. This monarch thought it expedient to go against the Coromandel Coast where the Mussalman army numbered but six thousand soldiers, the half of whom were excellent troops and the remainder were worth absolutely nothing. The Muhammadans fought a battle with him near the town of Cobban (Koppam); he routed them, and they retired to Moutrah (Madura) the capital of the country. The infidel sovereign encamped near Cobban (Koppam) which is one of the grandest and strongest places that the Mussalmans possess. He laid siege to it for ten months, and at the end of this time, the garrison had provisions only for fourteen days. Belal Deo (Baḷḷāḷa Dēva) sent a proposal to the besieged to retire with safe-conduct, and to abandon the town to him; but they replied, ‘we must refer this question to our Sultan.’ He then promised them a truce, which was to last for fourteen days, and wrote to Sultan Ghiyath-eddin (Ghiyazu-d-din) telling him how they were situated. The prince read their letter to the people the following Friday. The faithful wept and said: ‘We will sacrifice our lives to God. If the idolater takes that town, he will next lay siege to us: we prefer to die by the sword.’ They then undertook to expose themselves to death, and set out marching the next day, placing their turbans on the neck of their horses, which showed that they were seeking death. The bravest and most courageous of them, 300 in number were posted to the vanguard; the right wing was under Seif-eddin Behadur (Seifu-d-din Bahadur), the hero, who was a pious and brave lawyer; and the left wing was under, Almelic Mohamed ‘assilahdar’ (armiger). The Sultan remained in the centre with three thousand men, and the rear-guard was formed by the remaining 3,000 under the command of Assad-eddin Keikhosrew Alfaricy. In this order the Mussalmans set out, at the siesta hour, towards the infidel camp. Their horses were sent out to graze. They fell upon the encampment; the infidels, imagining the assailants were but robbers, went in disorder to meet them and fought with them. In the midst of all this, the Sultan Ghiyath-eddin arrived, and the Hindus sustained the worst of all defeats. Their king tried to mount his horse although he was eighty years of age. Nasir-eddin (Nasiru-d-din) nephew and successor of the Sultan overtook the old man and wanted to kill him, for he did not know who he was. But one of his slaves said: ‘He is the Hindu King.’ He then took him a prisoner to his uncle who treated him with apparent consideration and promised to release him. But when he had extorted from him his wealth, elephants and horses and all his property, he had him killed and flayed; his skin was stuffed with straw and hung up on the wall of Moutrah (Madura) where I saw it suspended.

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But let us return to our point. I left the camp and went to the grand and beautiful town of Faṭṭan, on the seashore. It has an admirable harbour with a wooden pavilion raised on stout posts. Leading to this pavilion is a pathway made of planks covered over with a roof. When an enemy arrives, all the ships in port are fastened to this pavilion; foot soldiers and archers go up there and the assailant has no means of hurting any one. This town contains a beautiful mosque built of stone where you find many grapes and excellent pomegranates. There I met the pious Sheik Mohammad Annciçaboury, one of those fakirs with hair hanging over his shoulders, whose spirit is troubled. He was accompanied by a lion tamed by him; the animal eats with the fakirs and lies down beside them. The Sheik had with him about thirty fakirs, one of whom had a gazelle that lived in the same place as the lion and the latter did it no harm. I tarried in the town of Fattan.

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In the meantime, a Yogee had prepared for the Sultan Ghiyath-eddin some pills amongst the ingredients of which were iron filings. The Sultan took a larger dose of them than was necessary for him and fell ill. In this state he reached Fattan; I went out to meet him and offered him a present. When he had settled down in the town, he sent for the admiral Khodjah Sorour and said to him: ‘Attend to nothing besides those vessels that are to go to the Maldives.’ He wanted to return to me the price of the present I had made him. I refused, but repented of it afterwards, for Ghiyath-eddin (Ghiyazu-d-din) died and I got nothing. The Sultan remained for half a month at Fattan, then he left for his capital; I remained yet a fortnight longer and then set out for his residence, which is Madura, a grand town with wide roads. The first prince who made that town his capital was my father-in-law the Sultan Sheriff Djelal-eddin Ahsan Shah (Jalalu-d-din Ahsan Shah), who modelled it on Delhi and built it carefully.

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When I arrived at Madura, there was a contagious disease prevalent there which killed people in a short time. Those who were attacked succumbed in two or three days. If their end was delayed, it was only until the fourth day. On leaving my dwelling, I saw people either sick or dead. In this town I bought a young slave who, I was assured, was healthy; but she died the following day. A woman, whose husband had been one of the viziers of the Sultan Ahsan Shah (Ahsan-Shah) came to me one day with her son aged eight years, a child full of spirit, and I gave both her and her son some money. They were both healthy and strong; but the next day the mother returned to ask a shroud for her son, for he died suddenly. In the Sultan’s audience hall, at the time of his death, there were certain women servants brought to boil rice for the people. These women got ill and were thrown on the earth, exposed to the sun’s rays.

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When Ghiyath-eddin (Ghiyazu-d-din) entered Madura, he found his mother, his wife and son a prey to the disease. He remained three days in the town, then he went to a river, one parasang away, on the shore of which stands an infidel temple. I went to see him on a Thursday, and he ordered me to stay with the Khadi (Kazi). When tents had been pitched for me, I saw people hurrying along, pushing one against the other. One of them said, ‘the Sultan is dead;’ the other was sure that it was his son that was dead. We found out the truth and knew that the son was dead. He was the Sultan’s only son; his death was one of the causes that made the father’s malady worse and killed him. The following Thursday the Sultan's mother died.

The Death of the Sultan. The Accession of His Brother's Son, and My Departure from the New Prince's Court

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The third Thursday, Ghiyath-eddin (Ghiyazu-d-din) died. I heard the news and hastened to return to town, fearing a tumult. I met Nasir-eddin (Nasiru-d-din), the nephew and successor of the deceased, who was sent for to the camp as the Sultan left no son. He asked me to retrace my steps to the camp with him; but I refused, and this refusal left an impression on his mind. This Nasir-eddin (Nasiru-d-din) was a domestic servant at Delhi before his uncle came to the throne. When Ghiyath-eddin (Ghiyazu-d-din) became king, the nephew fled to him in the garb of a fakir, and fate willed it that he should reign after him. When they had sworn allegiance to Nasir-eddin (Nasiru-d-din) poets recited his praises in verse, and they gave him magnificent gifts. The first who rose to recite verses was the Khadi Sadrazzeman (Kazi Sadru-s-Zaman), to whom he gave 500 pieces of gold and a robe of honour; then came the vizir named Alkadhi (the judge) whom the Sultan gratified with two thousand pieces of silver. As for me, he made a present of 300 pieces of gold and a robe of honour. He distributed alms among fakirs and the poor. When the preacher gave his first sermon in which he mentioned the name of the new sovereign, they loaded him with drachmas and dinars placed in gold and silver basins. The funeral of Ghiyath-eddin (Ghiyazu-d-din) was celebrated with great pomp. Each day the Koran was read beside the tomb. Then, those whose business it was to read the tenth part of the holy book, delivered a lecture, after which food was served and the public ate; finally, silver pieces were given to each individual according to his rank. This went on for forty days. The ceremony was renewed annually on the anniversary of the death of the deceased.

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The first step taken by Nasir-eddin (Nasiru-d-din) was to ruin his uncle's vizir by extorting sums of money from him. He made Melic Bedr-eddin (Malik Badru-d-din) vizir, the same man whom his uncle had sent to meet me when I was at Fattan. He died very soon; and the Sultan nominated as his successor, Khodjah Sorour, the admiral, with the title of Khodjah Djihan (Khwaja-i-Jehan) similar to the vizir of Delhi. Whoever addressed the vizir by any other title, had to pay a fine of a certain number of gold pieces. Then the Sultan Nasir-eddin killed the son of his paternal aunt, who was married to the daughter of Ghiyath-eddin (the late Sultan), and afterwards married his widow. He was told that Melic Maç-oud (Malik-Masud) had visited his cousin in prison before he was put to death; so he killed him as well as Melic Behadour (Malik Bahadur), who was a generous and virtuous hero. He ordered that I should be provided with all the ships that his uncle had sanctioned for my expedition to the Maldives. But I was attacked with the deadly fever, and thought I would die. God inspired me to have recourse to the tamarind which is very plentiful in this place. I took about a pound of it and soaked it in water, then drank this beverage which made me better in three days, and with God's help I was cured. Being disgusted with the town of Madura, I asked the Sultan's permission to go on my voyage. He said to me, 'How will you go? There is only one month for the Maldive expedition to be got ready. Stay then until we give you all that the master of the world (the late Sultan) ordered for you.' I refused and he wrote to Fattan giving me leave to sail in any vessel I pleased. I found there were eight vessels sailing for Yaman from Fattan and embarked on one of them. We met three war ships, which fought with us for a time and then retired. After that we arrived at Caoulem (Quilon). As I was free from all illness, I remained in this town for three months and then set sail in order to find the Sultan Djemal-eddin Alhinaoury (Jamalu-d-din of Honawar) but infidels attacked us between Hinaour (Honawar) and Facanaour.

How We Were Despoiled by the Hindus

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When we reached the little island situated between Hinaour (Honawar) and Facannaour, infidels attacked us with ten men-of-war, and after a lively engagement defeated us. They took verything I possessed—the store I held in reserve for a rainy day—pearls, precious stones given me by the king of Ceylon, clothes and provisions given me by wealthy men and holy persons. They left me no garment but a pair of drawers. They also seized all that belonged to every passenger and sailor, and made us go ashore. I returned to Calicut and entered one of the mosques. A lawyer sent me a dress, the Kadhi (Kazi) a turban, and a certain merchant another dress. Here I had news of the marriage of the vizir Abd Allah (Abdulla) with the Sultana Khadidjah, after the death of the vizir Djemal-eddin (Jamalu-d-din), and I also heard that the woman I left behind had given birth to a boy. I thought of going to the Maldive islands, but I remembered the enmity which had existed between me and the vizir Abd Allah. In consequence, I opened the Koran and these words came before my eyes ‘Angels will descend and say to them “fear not and be not sad.”’ I implored the blessings of God, and set sail. After ten days I arrived at the Maldives and landed on the isle of Cannalous. The Governor of this isle, Abd Al’aziz Almakdachaouy, welcomed me kindly, treated me and gave me a boat fully equipped. I afterwards arrived at Hololy, the island where the Sultana and her sisters go for a holiday and for bathing. The natives call these amusements ‘tetdjer’, and indulge in these games on their ships. The viziers and chiefs sent the Sultana presents and gifts whilst she remained on the isle. I met the sister of the Sultana there, her husband, the preacher Muhammad, son of the vizier Djemaleddin, and his mother who had been my wife. The preacher visited me and had food with me.

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In the meanwhile, some of the inhabitants of the island went to the vizier Abd Allah and announced my arrival to him. He questioned me regarding my position and the persons who had accompanied me. I then informed him that I had come in order to fetch my son, aged about two years. The mother of the child went to the vizier to complain to him about my intention; but he said to her: ‘I will not prevent him from taking his son.’ He forced me to go to the island (of Mahal) and lodged me in a house opposite the tower of his palace in order to know all about me. He sent me a full robe, betel, and rose water according to their custom. I took him two pieces of silk in order to throw them before him the moment I saluted him. They were accepted and the vizier did not come to entertain me that day. They introduced my son to me and it struck me that his stay with the islanders had done him much good. I then sent him back again to them and remained five days in the island. It seemed to me I ought to hasten my departure and I asked leave to do so. The vizier having called me, I went to him. They brought me the two pieces of stuff they had taken from me, and I threw them down while saluting the vizier as is the custom. He made me sit beside him and put me questions regarding myself. I ate in his company and washed my hands in the same basin with him—this is what he does with nobody. Afterwards betel was brought and I returned. The vizier sent me cotton drawers and hundreds of thousands of cowries, and behaved perfectly.

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In the meanwhile I departed. We were forty-three days on sea after which we reached Bengal, a large country producing an abundance of rice. I have not seen any place in the world where goods are cheaper than here; but it is a foggy country and people coming there from Khorasan call it ‘douzakhas pouri ni met’ which means, in Arabic, ‘a hell full of good things.’

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