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History of the Pallavas of Kanchi c13: Chapter VIII. Dynastic Revolution. Hiranyavarman and His Successor Nandivarman Pallavamalla

History of the Pallavas of Kanchi c13

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Chapter VIII. Dynastic Revolution. Hiranyavarman and His Successor Nandivarman Pallavamalla

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DYNASTIC REVOLUTION. HIRAṆYAVARMAN AND HIS SUCCESSOR PALLAVAMALLA HIRANYAVARMAN I

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THE Kaśākkuḍi plates of Nandivarman Pallavamalla pass on from Paramēśvaravarman II to Nandivarman, the descendant of Bhīmavarman, thereby suggesting that the Pallava throne passed into the hands of Nandivarman II immediately after Paramēśvaravarman II. The circumstances that led to a change in the family are not stated. According to the Udayēndiram plates it appears that Paramēśvaravarman II left a young prince called Chitramāya whose cause was espoused by the Dramila princes. The recently-discovered Koṟṟanguḍi plates dated in the sixty-first year of Nandivarman II Pallavamalla, mention after Vīrakūrcha and others one Hiraṇyavarman who is said to have ruled as king. The Vēlūrpāḷayam plates do not mention this fact. But the Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates¹ record of him that he was born for the good of the world and that he made his enemies settle in forests and was the asylum of those who eagerly desired protection. His place in the Pallava family may be indicated in the following table :—

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¹ Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates, v. 1, S.I.I., vol ii, part 5, p. 528.

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| | Simhavarman | |
| | | |
| Simhavarman | | Bhīmavarman |
| | | |
| Mahēndravarman | | Buddhavarman |
| | | |
| | | Ādityavarman |
| | | |
| | | Govindavarman |
| | | |
| | | Hiraṇya I |
| | | |
| Paramēśvara II | | Nandivarman II |
| | | |
| Chitramāya | | |

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*Sculptures in the Vaikuṇṭhaperumāl Temple at Kāñchi.*—The sculptures inside the Vaikuṇṭhaperumāl temple at Kāñchīpuram throw some light upon the history of this period. The original sculptures were considerably mutilated, but the temple authorities have tried to repair them with brick and mortar. The explanatory notes have not been filled in completely but are found on a small portion of the south verandah and explain thirteen compartments of the upper row of sculptures. The first of these notes refers to the death of Paramēśvaravarman of the Pallava family which was descended from the God Brahma and mentions the ministers, the Ghaṭikaiyār, the Mūlaprakṛti and Hiraṇyavarma Mahārāja. It is partially damaged but ends with the word ‘place’. The second compartment ends with the words *enru sonna idam*, ‘the place where he said that’. The fourth mentions Śrīmalla, Raṇamalla, Sangrāmamalla, and Pallavamalla as Hiraṇyavarma’s four sons and ends with the words ‘*Paramēśvaran nan povēn enru toḷuduninra idam*’, ‘the place where Paramēśvara stood in a worshipping posture saying he would go’.¹ Then Hiraṇyavarma Mahārāja and Dharaṇikoṇḍapośar are mentioned; also the Nagarattār i.e., the citizens of Kāñchīpuram, the Mūlaprakṛti and the Kāṭaka Muttarayar. Mention is also made of the coronation (*Abhiṣēka*) of young Pallavamalla under the style Nandivarma.²

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¹ The actual text has been published in *S.I.I.*, vol. iv, pp. 10-12.

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² *Ibid.*

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*The Probable Interpretation of the Sculptures.*—The sculptural representations in these panels taken along with the information contained in the Kaśākkuḍi plates³ help us to establish that there was a change of dynasty on the death of Paramēśvaravarman, and that Nandivarman II, till then named Paramēśvaran Pallavamalla was chosen to occupy the Pallava throne by the people. In this enterprise Nandivarman II appears to have received considerable help from Hiraṇyavarman I, and his trustworthy general Udayachandra whose exploits for the cause of his master are described in detail in the Udayēndiram plates.⁴ The Kaśākkuḍi plates dated in the twenty-second year of this king records the important fact that ‘he was chosen by his subjects’. The sculptures at the Vaikuṇṭhaperumāḷ temple have been interpreted as indicating a general election to the Pallava throne on the death of Paramēśvaravarman II. ‘The Kaśākkuḍi plates¹ of Pallava king Nandivarman Pallavamalla tell us, that, after the death of Paramēśvaravarman II, Nandivarman, son of Hiraṇyavarman, was chosen by his subjects. It may therefore be concluded that this part of the sculptures were intended to represent the various events connected with the succession of Nandivarman who might be the prince referred to in the notes as Pallavamalla. As the Vaikuṇṭhaperumāḷ temple was called Paramēśvaraviṇṇagaram, very probably after the Pallava king Nandivarman Pallavamalla called also Paramēśvaravarman² it may be supposed that both the sculptures and the explanatory notes accompanying them were cut out soon after the temple itself was built.’

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³ Verse 27, *S.I.I.*, vol. ii, part 3, p. 357.

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⁴ *Ibid.*, *S.I.I.*, pp. 37-72.

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¹ S.I.I., vol. ii, part 3, p. 344.

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² Paramēśvaran Pallavamalla was the name and Nandivarman was the title of Nandivarman Pallavamalla. See S.I.I., vol. iv, No. 135, p. 11

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It would be more accurate to consider that the sculptures at the Vaikuṇṭhaperumāḷ temple at Kāñchīpuram taken as a whole represent the whole history of the Pallava family rather than the immediate events connected with the accession of Nandivarman Pallavamalla about the beginning of the eighth century. It is well known that the explanatory notes have not been filled in completely for all the long series of bas-reliefs of which only a small number could be interpreted with the help of inscriptions.³ It is therefore incorrect to regard all these sculptures as being connected with only the immediate events relating to the accession of Nandivarman II. If we examine the sculptures from the commencement, almost from the first panel which presents Viṣṇu, to the following which represent Brahmā, Aṅgīrasa, Bṛhaspati, Bhāradvāja, Droṇa and Aśvatthāman, the birth of Pallava, is found to be graphically represented while the rest illustrate and continue the family history.

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³ Para 2 of M.E.R. for 1906.

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Then again it is not necessary to infer that Paramēśvaravarman II should have been either deposed or forced to retire from the throne.¹ The inscription here requires to be thoroughly re-interpreted. The correct explanation of the scene is the selection of Nandivarman Pallavamalla, then called Paramēśvaravarman Pallavamalla, to the throne from among the four sons of Hiraṇyavarman. The details (See footnote below) furnished in the descriptive labels fully confirm the statement in the Kaśākkuḍi plates that he was raised to the throne by the general approval of the citizens and thoroughly falsify the usurpation theory put forward by some writers.

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¹ It has been generally supposed that Nandivarman Pallavamalla usurped the Pallava throne soon after Paramēśvaravarman II. This is not at all supported by the evidence furnished by the Vaikuṇṭhaperumāḷ temple sculptures which represent the events that took place immediately after the death of Paramēśvaravarman II leading to the accession of Pallavamalla. The inscriptional evidence has been translated thus in the *Epig. Indica*: ‘After the death of Paramēśvaravarman II, a deputation consisting of the *Matras*, the *Malaprakritis* and the *Ghatakayar* waited on Hiraṇyavarma-Maharaja and represented the fact that the country was without a ruler and requested him to grant them a sovereign. There upon king Hiraṇyavarman sent for the chief potentates (*Kūlamullar*) and enquired which among them would accept the sovereignty. All of them refusing, he asked his sons Srimalla, Raṇamalla, Saṅgrāmamalla and Pallavamalla. Pallavamalla humbly offered to go, but king Hiraṇyavarman was at first unwilling to risk his son, who was then only twelve years of age, in such a perilous undertaking. But Hiraṇyavarman was soon persuaded by Daraṇikoṇḍapōsar to give his consent. Receiving the weapons presented to him both by his father and Daraṇikoṇḍapōsar, Pallavamalla proceeded to Kāñchipuram, crossing on his way several hills, rivers and forests. Hearing of his approach a certain Pallavadi-Araiyar came with a large force, and placed him on an elephant’s back and returned to the city where he was received by the feudatory chiefs, the members of the merchants’ guild, the *mulaprakritis*, and Kadakka-Muttaraiyar. He was then crowned king under the name Nandivarman and with the insignia of *Videlvedugu*, *Samudraghōsha*, *Khaṭavāṅgadavaja* and *Vrishabha lanchhana* by the ministers’ feudatories, the *ghatakayar* and the *ubhaiya-gaṇa*.’ *Epig. Ind.*, vol. xviii, p. 117.

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*The Position of Hiraṇyavarman.*—The only difficulty still facing us is with reference to Hiraṇyavarman who is described in the newly-discovered copper-plates from Koṟṟanguḍi as having actually ruled as king. The Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates make a glowing reference to him and describe his stirring prowess² in the field of battle, giving the impression that he was a ruling sovereign of Kāñchi. The Vēlūrpālayam plates and the Bāhūr plates omit his name altogether. There cannot be any doubt that Hiraṇyavarman mentioned in the Kaśākkuḍi ¹ plates as the immediate ancestor of Nandivarman II and the sixth descendant of Bhīmavarman, the brother of Simhavishṇu, is the same as the Hiraṇyavarman figuring in the Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates² as well as the bas-reliefs in the Vaikuṇṭhaperumāḷ temple just mentioned. According to Mr. Krishna Sastri, this Hiraṇyavarman was really Dantivarman, the son of Nandivarman II and the Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates belonging to Nandivarman III, the son of Dantivarman, the donor of the Vēlūrpāḷayam plates. He observes ³ :—

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² Verse 1, Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates, *S.I.I.*, vol. ii, part 5, p. 520.

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¹ Vide ante S.I.I., vol. ii, p. 520.

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² Ibid.

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³ S.I.I., vol. ii, part v, p. 518.

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‘The first plate of the preserved portion begins by referring to a king who conquered the south and states that a certain Hiraṇyavarman was born again “for the welfare of the world”. . . . The father of Vijayanandivikramavarman is here stated to have been Hiraṇyavarman; while the father of Vijayanandivikramavarman is here stated to have been Hiraṇyavarman; while the father of Vijayanandivikramavarman according to the Vēlūrpāḷayam plates was Dantivarman. If the proposed identity of Vijayanandivikramavarman with Vijayanandivarman is accepted, the apparent discrepancy in the name of the father could be explained. The statement that Hiraṇyavarman was born again, evidently indicates a second king of that name and we may suppose that Dantivarman, the father of Vijayanandivikramavarman, was also called Hiraṇyavarman like his grandfather Hiraṇyavarman I, the father of Nandivarman Pallavamalla. If the foregoing surmises are confirmed by future researches the Taṇḍantōṭṭam grant would be fifty-two years later than the Vēlūrpāḷayam grants of the same king.’

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There arise, however, many difficulties in accepting this view and regarding that the Hiraṇyavarman of the Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates is the same as Dantivarman, the son of Nandivarman Pallavamalla. For one thing there is no evidence that Dantivarman had the surname Hiranyavarman as is supposed by Mr. Krishna Sastri. In the second place Ekadhira, a surname that occurs in the Tandantottam plates for Nandivarman II, also occurs in the Kasakkudi plates of the same king thus proving that the donor of this grant was the same as the grant of Kasakkudi. The palæography of these plates (Tandantottam) is according to scholars much too archaic to be assigned to the middle of the ninth century A.D. and really belongs to the middle of the eighth century,¹ and are akin to the Kasakkudi plates. The objection to the high regnal year usually given for Nandivarman II by the epigraphists cannot be considered valid any longer as he is known to have succeeded to the throne in his twelfth year² and as we have inscriptions and copper-plates of this sovereign dated in the forty-seventh, fiftieth, fifty-second, sixty-first, sixty-second and sixty-fifth years of his reign. Again the Tandantottam plates describe Nandivarman II as a devout worshipper of Vishnu, and this is in perfect accordance with all facts known about him and we cannot therefore imagine that he was also a devout worshipper of Siva as the donor of the Velurpalayam plates is said to have been. It is therefore very probable that Hiranyavarman mentioned in the Tandantottam as well as in the Korrangudi plates, dated in the sixty-first regnal year of Nandivarman II is identical with Hiranyavarman I, the father of Nandivarman II. Whether Hiranyavarma Maharaja was an independent ruler of Kanchi as hinted in the Korrangudi plates and whether he ruled for a long time, cannot be ascertained in the present state of our knowledge. It looks very probable that during Paramesvaravarman II's reign he wielded considerable power and was possibly placed in charge of a part of the Pallava dominions. The death of this ruler gave him an opportunity to install his son who was very young at the time of his accession as a ruler of Conjeevaram, and who reigned for an exceptionally long period as seen from inscriptions dated in the sixty-fifth year of his reign.³

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¹ Jouveau-Dubreuil, Pallavas, p. 61.

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² S.I.I., vol. iv, No. 135.

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³ Ep. Coll., No. 666 of 1922.

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Reign of Nandivarman II Pallavamalla, circa A.D. 710 to 775.—Let us first take up the duration of the reign. There is considerable difference of opinion as to the exact period of his reign. Certain scholars, including the officers of the Epigraphical Department¹ do not believe that Nandivarman Pallavamalla had anything like a length of reign indicated by the Taṇḍantōṭṭam and Koṟṟanguḍi plates, and the inscriptions of Tiruvallam and Seven Pagodas all of which they wrongly assigned to Nandivarman III. It will be recollected that the Tiruvallam record is dated is the sixty-second year and that the inscription discovered at the Seven Pagodas² is dated in the sixty-fifth year of Nandivarman. So far as we know this is the longest reign in the Pallava family and this is all the more remarkable because it was followed by another long reign namely that of Dantivarman, one of whose inscriptions is dated in the fifty-first year of his reign,³ the two reigns together covering 116 years. The officers of the Epigraphical Department however have been continuously attributing the high regnal years to Nandivarman III⁴ son of Dantivarman for reasons not altogether convincing or clear. Even in the Epigraphy Report for 1922-23 we come across with the following remarks:—

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¹ It is very unlikely, observes H. Krishna Sastri in *Mad. Epig. Rep. for 1912* that a usurper like Pallavamalla with so many enemies to oppose and disturb his peaceful rule, could have continued to occupy the Pallava throne for so long a period as 50 years. His latest sure date, however, must be the 22nd year in which the Kaśākkuḍi plates were issued.’ This is generally based on the assumption that no stone inscriptions hitherto discovered should be attributed to Nandivarman Pallavamalla. Mr. K. V. Subramanya Aiyar definitely opposed this view as early as 1917 in his *Historical Sketches of Ancient Dekhan* (p. 49) and the discoveries of subsequent records as well as the fresh interpretation of the Vaikuṇṭha-perumāḷ inscriptions above referred to have amply proved the correctness of his inference. He has discussed the matter in detail in the *Epig. Ind.*, vol. xviii, pp. 116-117, while editing the *Paṭṭatattamangalam* grant of Nandivarman.

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² *Ep. Coll.*, No. 666 of 1922.

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³ *Madras Ep. Coll.*, No. 262 of 1904.

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⁴ *S.I.I.* vol. ii, p. 518.

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‘From the high regnal years given in the lithic regards⁵ of Mahābalipuram and in this copper-plate (Koṟṟanguḍi plates) grant, the kings Nandipotavarman and Ko-Vijaya Nandivikramavarman mentioned in them respectively must be identical with Kovijaya Nandivikramavarman (Nandivarman III) of the Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates and the Tiruvallam rock inscription.¹ But some of the exploits recorded of this king in this record, conquest over the Vallabha, Kaḷabhra, Kēraḷa, Pāṇḍya, Chōḷa, Tuḷuva and Konkaṇa as well as the invocation to Viṣṇu in the commencement of the record militates strongly against the view which attributes this record to Nandivarman III whose sole achievements that we know of were the series of victories ending with that at Teḷḷāṟu mentioned frequently in his inscriptions. It is therefore probable more especially as Nandivarman II is described to have followed Hiraṇyavarman that this record belongs to Nandivarman II.² The duration of his reign may therefore be definitely taken as not less than sixty-five years so far as present epigraphic evidence goes and that Nandivarman Pallavamalla lived at least to the age of seventy-seven.

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⁵ No. 666 of App. B.

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¹ M.E.R., 1902-3, p. 95.

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² Note by Editor.

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Events of His Reign.—The most important events of his reign may be ascertained from his own copper-plates of which we have no less than four (viz.) the Kaśākkuḍi plates dated in the twenty-second year of his reign, the Udayēndiram plates dated in the twenty-first year of his reign, the Taṇḍantōṭṭam and the Koṟṟanguḍi plates dated in the fifty-eighth and the sixty-first years of his reign. Of these the Udayēndiram record gives valuable information regarding the military achievements of this period while the Kaśākkuḍi and the Koṟṟanguḍi plates furnish details of his personal accomplishments and the culture of the period. The contemporary records such as the Kailāsanātha temple inscription of Vikramāditya II, at Kāñchīpuram the Vakkalēri plates of Kīrtivarman, the Kēndūr plates, as well as the Pāṇḍya records from Vēḷvikkuḍi and Śinnamanūr throw some light on the relations that subsisted between these powers and the Pallava king. The Vakkalēri plates³ in particular furnish detailed information relating to the invasion of Kāñchi by the Chālukyan emperor Vikramāditya II and his exploits there.

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³ Ind. Ant., vol. viii, p. 23.

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*The Chālukyan Invasion of Kāñchi.*—The Pallava-Chālukya wars which had been lost sight of since the days of Narasimhavarman I, the Mahāmalla, appear to have been once more renewed. The Kēndūr plates of Vikramāditya II describe an actual invasion into the Pallava dominions (*Tuṇḍakaraṣṭra*) and the capture of the city in somewhat graphic terms:—Being resolved to uproot completely his natural enemy (*prakṛti-amitra*) Vikramāditya II (A.D. 733 to 746) reached Tuṇḍāka-Viṣaya, ‘beat and put to flight, at the opening of the campaign, the opposing Pallava king named Nandipōtavarman, took possession of particular musical instruments called *Kaṭumukhavaditra*,¹ the *Samudraghoṣa*, the *khaṭvāṅkhadvaja*, many excellent and well-known intoxicated elephants and a heap of rubies which dispelled darkness by the brilliancy of the multitude of their rays. . . entered without destroying the city of Kāñchi, which was as it were a girdle adorning yonder lady, the region of the south . . . rejoiced the Brāhmaṇas, and poor and helpless people by his uninterrupted liberality . . . acquired high merit by restoring heaps of gold to the stone temple of Rājasimhēśvara, and other gods which have been caused to be built by Narasimha-potavarman . . . distressed by the Pāṇḍya, Chōḷa, Kēraḷa, Kaḷabhra and other kings. . . .’²

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¹ These are alluded to in the hymns of Tirumaṅgai Āḷvār in the Paramēśvaraviṇṇagaram verses in expressions which are literal translations in Tamil of the Sanskrit names of the war instruments. They also figure in the mutilated inscriptions at the Vaikuṇṭhaperumāḷ temple, Kāñchipuram.

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² *Ep. Ind.*, vol. ix, p. 205.

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The above extract from the Kēndūr plates distinctly makes it clear that Vikramāditya II actually captured the city of Kāñchi from the Pallava king Nandipotavarman, that is, Nandivarman Pallavamalla, and occupied it for a period of time during which he endowed some of its temples with grants. This occupation of the Pallava capital by Vikramāditya is further confirmed by the discovery of a Kanarese inscription of Vikramāditya engraved on one of the pillars of the *maṇḍapa* in front of the Rājasimhēśvara shrine. This inscription which has been published¹ by Dr. Hultzsch records the fact that Vikramāditya Satyāśraya, after his conquest of Kāñchi, did not confiscate the property of Rājasimhēśvara temple, but granted large sums to the same, and ends with an imprecation. The Chāḷukyan attack on Kāñchi was therefore apparently different in character from the raid of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I on Vātāpi which involved much destruction if the *Periyapurāṇam* account² is to be believed.

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¹ *Ep. Ind.*, vol. iii, p. 359. *Vide* App. A.

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² *Periyapurāṇam*, *Siruttoṇḍanāyaṉār Purāṇam*, v. 6.

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When did this expedition on Kāñchi start? Though no definite answer is possible it is presumable that this took place in the earlier half of Nandivarman’s reign, in all probability between A.D. 733 to 746, when the Pallava king was preoccupied with wars against the southern powers.³ In any case the occupation of the city by the Chāḷukyan army does not appear to have lasted for any considerable period. Nandivarman II was not slow in summoning his forces, to drive out the foreign invader from Kāñchipuram. How this was brought about and when it was brought about are not clearly known. Whether the achievement was effected by the single-handed efforts of his own generals unaided by a coalition of other powers of the Tamil land, it is not also possible to say. It is however clear that Nandivarman Pallavamalla recaptured Kāñchi, and continued to carry on the administration undismayed by the Chāḷukya invasion that took place. It is a mistake to suppose that the Chāḷukyan invasions in the reign of Pallavamalla either exhausted the resources, or cut short his reign. On the other hand in spite of the rude shocks that the raids of Vikramāditya and Kirtivarman must have caused, Nandivarman II continued in power as ruler of Kāñchi for the unusually long period of sixty-five years as we may safely ascribe the inscription recently discovered at the Seven Pagodas¹ to him.

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³ This is confirmed by the presence of an inscription of Vikramāditya (II) in the Kailasanātha temple which records that Vikramāditya after his conquest of Kāñchi did not confiscate the property of the Rājasimhēśvara temple but enriched it by granting large sums of gold. (*Ep. Ind.*, vol. iii, p. 359). Similarly the Vakkalēri plates also make reference to this event (*Ind. Ant.*, vol. viii, p. 23).

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¹ Ins. No. 666 of 1922. This inscription is wrongly ascribed to Nandivarman III in M. R. 1923. The reference in (verse 7) the Patattalmangalam grant of Nandivarman II that he ruled as King while yet very young and the statement in the Vaikuṇṭhaperumāḷ temple inscriptions that the prince was twelve years old at the time of coronation confirm the longevity of this reign.

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*Other Campaigns of Pallavamalla.*—The reign of Nandivarman II appears to have been almost literally crowded with military engagements, sieges, invasions, and counter invasions. It has already been noticed that the Western Cāḷukya invasion of Kāñchi² which probably took place early in his reign resulted in the capture of the city by the enemies. The southern campaigns may now be noticed. Although the causes that brought about the conflict with the powers of the south especially the Pāṇḍyas of this period are by no means clear it may be surmised that the southern powers who were somehow dissatisfied with the accession of Pallavamalla to the throne of Kāñchi, in supersession of the regular family, now espoused the cause of Chitramāya a young prince who presumably had some claims by descent from Paramēśvaravarman II. This involved Nandivarman II in a long and deadly campaign against the Dramiḷa (Tamil) powers. In this campaign he seems to have received valuable help from his trusted general Udayachandra, the lord of Villivala, whose services are enumerated in the Udayēndiram plates dated in the twenty-first year of his reign. The victories enumerated in the Vēḷvikkuḍi and Sinnamanūr plates for Arikēsari-Parāṅkuśa-Māravarman at Neḍuvayal, Kuṟumaḍai, Maṇṇikurichi, Koḍumbāḷūr, Pūvaḷūr, Tirumaṅgai, Kuḷumūr, and Śaṅkaramaṅgai probably form part of the campaign of Pallavamalla and assigned to this period. Some of these battles such as those of Maṇṇai, Neḍuvayal, Nenmali, etc., are referred to in the Paramēśvaraviṇṇagaram hymns of Tirumaṅgai Āḷvār.³ Many of these places also occur among the examples quoted in the commentary upon the Tamil work Iraiyanār-Ahapporuḷ which also mentions many other places not mentioned in the inscriptional records Koṭṭāṟu, Nāraiyāṟu, Viḷiñam, etc.

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² Raid on the south by Vinayāditya, son of Vikramāditya.

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³ Per. Tir. ii, 9.

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Siege of Nandipura.—One of the most important of the achievements of Udayachandra whose exploits are enumerated in the Udayēndiram plates¹ was the release of Nandivarman II from the fortified town of Nandipura which was besieged by his enemies the Tamil kings. Nandipura which is identical with Nandipuraviṇṇagaram of Tirumaṅgai Āḷvār is situated not far from the modern town of Kumbhakonam, and is now-a days known as Nāthan-Kovil. During the later Pallava age especially in the eighth century, this place appears to have served as the seat of Pallava power in the southern districts, and was presumably fortified. It is noteworthy that the hymns to this shrine of Tirumaṅgai Āḷvār, who was a contemporary of Pallavamalla, have a clear reference to Nandivarman.² The circumstances that led to the siege of this place by the southern powers are not clear. But it has been presumed that the Tamil powers joined together in a great coalition espousing the cause of Chitramāya, the Pallava prince, and attacked Pallavamalla at a time when he had been staying at Nandipura. The circumstances relating to the release, and list of the other battles are described in the Udayēndiram plates.

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¹ ll. 37 to 62.

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² தந்தைமனமுந்து துயர்கந்தஇருள் வந்தவிறல் கந்தன்மதலை எந்தையவென்றமரம் கந்தமலர் கொண்டுதொழ நின்றார்கர்தான் மந்தமுழவோசை மழையாகவெழுகார் மயில்நாரெ பொழில்களும் நந்திபணிசெய்தகர் நந்திபுரவிண்ணகரம் நண்ணுமினமே! See Nandipuravinnagarapatikam, Per. Tiru., v. 10.

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Udayachandra’s Exploits.—Udayachandra is described in the record as the lord of the River Vēgavati, and of the city Vilvala,³ the ornament of the whole world. Born of the race of Pūchan, which had been in the uninterrupted hereditary service of the Pallava race . . . ‘when he perceived that Pallavamalla was besieged in Nandipura by the Dramiḷa princes, unable to bear this, like the visible death of the crowd of enemies of Pallavamalla, (he) slew with (his) sharp sword which glittered like a petal of water-lily, the Pallava king Chitramāya and others; he defeated the hostile army on the battle-fields of Nimbavana Chūtavana, Śankaragrāma, Nellūr, Nelvēli, Śūravaḷundur, and so forth, and thus bestowed the whole kingdom many times on the Pallava. . . . He split the opposing Śabara king called Udayana, in the terrible battle of Nelvēli, which could hardly be entered by a common man, and seized his mirror banner made of a peacock's tail; who in the northern region also, pursued the Nishada chief, called Prithivi-Vyāgra who desiring to become very powerful was running after the horse of the Asvamēdha, defeated him and ordered him out of the district of Vishṇurāja, which he subjected to the Pallava, and seized faultless pearl necklaces of excellent lustre, an immeasurable heap of gold, and elephants; and he destroyed the fort of Kāḷidurga, which was protected by the Goddess Kāḷi, and defeated the Pāṇḍya army at the village of Maṇṇaikuḍi.’ ¹

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³ Identified with Vilvaḷanagara-viḷḷivalam in the Chingleput District.

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¹ ll. 37 to 62, Udayēndiram plates; S.I.I., vol. ii, part 3, p. 372.

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Among the localities mentioned wherein Udayachandra achieved victories for his master occurs, Nellore which is identical with the headquarter station of the modern Nellore District. Nelvēli is probably identical with Nenmali mentioned by Tirumaṅgai Āḷvār in his Periya-Tirumoḷi.² It is identified by Dr. Hultzsch with modern Tinnevelly. If the Śabaras are identical with the modern Sauras of the Ganjam and Vizagapatam District it would not be correct to identify Nelvēli where the Śabara king is said to have been killed (l. 52) with Tinnevelly. It is therefore to be identified with some other place on the border of the Telugu districts. We may identify the Vishṇurāja with the Eastern Chāḷukya king Vishṇuvardhana III who was a contemporary Vikramāditya II. The Śankaragrāma mentioned in the Udayēndiram plates has been identified with Sankaramangai mentioned in the larger Śinnamanūr plates, while Maṇṇaikuḍi is identical probably with the Maṇṇikurichchi of the Veḷvikuḍi plates where Kō-Śadaiyan claims a victory over the Pallavas. Maṇṇaikuḍi may be identified with the village of Maṇakuḍi in the Arantangi Taluk of the Tanjore District. The battle-fields of Nimbavana, Chūtavana and Śankaragrāma may be similarly identified with Veppangāḍu, Kovilūr (Tiruvūsattānam of the Tēvāram) and Sankaranārkuḍikāḍu.¹ The region in and around these places in the Tanjore District appears to have figured largely in the campaigns of the Pallavas against the Pāṇḍyas, and are evidently alluded to in the hymns of Tirumaṅgai Āḷvār, in the Paramēśvaraviṇṇagarapatikam.

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² ொன்மலிபில் வெருவச்செருவேல் வலங்கைப் பிடித்த படைத்திறல் பல்லவர்கோன்—ii, 9, 8.

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¹ Sen-Tam., vol. xxii, pp. 10, 11.

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One of the references in the Udayēndiram plates, namely, the Aśvamēdha horse which was detained by Prithivi-Vyāgra has been interpreted as containing a reference that Nandivarman Pallavamalla performed an Aśvamēdha sacrifice² to celebrate his supremacy.

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² 1. 56, Udayēndiram plates. P. T. Srinivasa Aiyangar's Pallavas. There are no independent references in the published records to prove that Pallavamalla performed an Aśvamēdha sacrifice. The reference to this sacrifice in the Udayēndiram plates does not specify that it was performed by this Pallava King.

Rāṣṭrakūṭa Invasions on Kāñchi

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The Rāṣṭrakūṭa kings who were contemporary with Nandivarman Pallavamalla claim victories over the Pallavas and their city. The Kaḍaba plates³ distinctly mention Vayiramēga as a surname of Dantidurga Rāṣṭrakūṭa. Now, Vayiramēga is mentioned in Tirumaṅgai Āḷvār's hymns on the deity of Ashṭabhuja in Kāñchīpuram along with the local ruler of Kāñchi.⁴ The verse under consideration has reference to two rulers, the local Pallava ruler of Kāñchi and the foreign Rāṣṭrakūṭa ruler Vayiramēga in occupation of Kāñchi just then. The conquest of Kāñchi is also alluded to in the Ellora inscription as well as in the Bagumra plates ¹ of Govinda III from which we learn that Dantidurga first reduced the lowermost (southern) country, then turned his enemies to Madhyadēśa and finally conquered the city of Kāñchi.² From the Vēlūr-pāḷayam plates we learn that Nandivarman Pallavamalla's queen was called Rēva and that his son was called Dantivarman. From this it has been conjectured that there was soon after the invasions of Kāñchi by Dantidurga a marriage alliance ³ between the Pallava king and the daughter of Dantidurga, and the son born to the Rāshṭrakūṭa princess was called Dantivarman after the maternal grandfather. This Rāshṭrakūṭa-Pallava pact does not appear to have prevented Govinda III from leading another invasion on the Pallava capital and levying tribute from Dantiga of Kāñchi.⁴

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³ Ep. Ind., vol. iv, p. 334.

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⁴ For a discussion on the identity of Vayiramēga see Quart. Jour. Myth. Society, vol. xiii, pp. 581-8 and pp. 698-700. மன்னவன் தொண்டையர்கோன் வணங்கும் நீள்முடிமாலையவிரமேகன் தன்வலிதன்புகழ் சூழ்ந்தகச்சி அட்டபுயகரத்திதன்னே கன்னின் மாமதிள் மங்கை வேந்தன் காமருசீர்க்கலிக்கன்றி குன்றா இன்னிசைபாற்சொன்ன செஞ்சொல்மாலை ஏத்தவல்லார்கிடம் வைகுந்தமே.

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¹ *Ep. Ind.*, vol. ix, p. 24.

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² Verse vi, *Ep. Ind.*, vol. ix, p. 24.

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³ Vēlūrpāḷayam plates, verse 18.

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⁴ *Ind. Ant.*, vol. x, p. 125.

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Expedition against the Gangas.—The military exploits of Nandivarman II thus appear to have filled every part of his reign and almost all contemporary dynasties of the day seem to have come into hostile contact with him. To these powers, the Pāṇḍyas, the Rāshṭrakūṭas, the eastern Chāḷukyas, the western Chāḷukyas, may be added the Gangas. What led to the conflict with the Gangas is not clearly stated, but verse 6 of the Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates make a specific reference to the fact that Nandivarman took away a neck ornament from which contained in it the gem called Ugrōdaya.⁵ Although the name of the Ganga king is not mentioned, it may be presumed that he must have been either Śivamara or Śrīpurusha. As the earlier plates dated in the twenty-first and twenty-second years of his reign do not specify this detail this achievement probably took place in the later half of his reign.

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⁵ *S.I.I.*, vol. ii, part 5, p. 519.

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Religious Leanings.—The religious leanings of Nandivarman Pallavamalla were towards Vaishṇavism. His celebrated contemporary seems to allude to his worshipful attitude in the present tense in his hymn on the God of Aṣṭabhuja at Kāñchī. His copper-plates describe him as never accustomed to bowing ‘excepting to the pair of worshipful feet of Mukunda’ (Viṣṇu)¹ as worshipping the feet of Hari.² The newly-found plates of Koṟṟanguḍi devote several invocatory verses to Viṣṇu (verses 1 and 2). The unnamed Pallava king who is mentioned by Tirumaṅgai Āḻvār as having worshipped at Śrīrangam is presumably Nandivarman Pallavamalla³ as also the king called Nandi in the Nandipuraviṇṇagarapatikam.

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¹ Verse 12, Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates. *Ibid.*

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² Verse 30, Kaśākkuḍi plates. *Ibid.*

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³ Other details of the king in somewhat exaggerated terms are also available from this copper-plate grants. Some interesting personal accomplishments and qualities are furnished in the *praśasti* portion of the Kaśākkuḍi grant composed by Trivikra[m]. In verse 29 we read:—‘This Śrīdhara (Pallavamalla) resembles Vijaya in battle, Karṇisuta, in acquaintance with the arts, Rāma in archery, the king of Vatsa with reference to the science of elephants and to music, Kāma in the opinion of women, the first poet (Vālmīki) in the composition of poetry, the master of policy (Bṛhaspati) himself in suggesting expedients, and (Dharma) Yudhiṣṭhira in delighting the subjects.’ Verse 2 of the Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates say of him:—‘From him (Hiraṇyavarman) was born the wise and the prosperous king called Nandivarman who was the home of prowess and conqueror of the hoards of his enemies, whose victorious elephant reached almost the shores of the four oceans, whose fame extended to the four quarters and who was praised in battle for his knowlede in the use of all weapons. Verse 3 of the same record says, ‘The only one of name Raja that did not bow to him was the dead-rayed moon and the only country in this world that did not pay tribute to him was that where no men exist. And while this king comparable to Indra was ruling the earth, there was nothing unapproachable by the people except perhaps the way leading to hell.’ ‘He is the lord of the circle of good people as Hari is the possessor of the powerful weapon Chakra, him the wise cling to as Gods to Sakra (Indra). ‘He wore on his breast, as it were the lord of serpents, the bed of Achyuta dwelling near his heart a necklace, which he had snatched away from the Ganga king and in which was the gem called Ugrōdaya like the Kaustuba (*verse 6*).’

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*State of Learning during Nandivarman’s Reign.*—The copper-plates of this and following period give excellent glimpses into the nature of learning during this period as well as of government, etc. The donees enumerated in the Kaśākkuḍi plates and the Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates numbering several hundreds are many of them, if we may judge from their titles, masters of three and four Vedas of the six angas, etc. Of the 244 and odd names that are mentioned in the Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates no less than a hundred were Chaturvēdis, 18 were Shaḍangavids, while there are several Kramavids, Bhaṭṭas and Trivēdis. The accomplishments of an average South Indian Brahman scholar in the field of Sanskrit learning during the eighth century may be gathered from the following description of the donee of the Kasākkuḍi charter dated in the twenty-second year of Nandivarman II's reign the object of which was to register a gift of village to a Brahman scholar whose name was Jyēshṭapada Somayāji. The extract gives some idea of what the average Brahmanical educational curriculum consisted in those times :—

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‘ While the twenty-second year of his reign was current, this Rājādhirāja-paramēśvara, the Mahārāja called Nandivarman, who is engaged in ruling the kingdom of Paramēśvarapōtarāja, . . . was himself pleased to give as a Brahmadēya, as requested by Brahmaśrīrāja . . . who just as Bṛhaspati is minister of Indra, the lord of heaven, is the chief minister of the handsome Nandin, the lord of the earth and the chief of the Pallavas, to Jyēshṭapada Somayājin, who has mastered the ocean-like Vedas, who chants the Sāman hymns which are pleasant on account of their melody (rasa); who has completed the rehearsal and the study of the six auxiliary works, namely, the ritual of the Veda, grammar, astronomy, etymology, phonetics and metrics; who knows the properties of words, sentences and subjects; who has drunk the elixir of the śruti and smṛti; who is learned in the portion referring to rites (Karmakāṇḍa) and the portion referring to knowledge (Jñānakāṇḍa); who is skilled in the ways of the world and in the knowledge of the arts; who is versed in the poems, dramas, stories, epics and legends; in short who is skilled in all branches of (holy and profane) knowledge; who is expert in the performance of all rites; who is of good conduct; (who illumines) the world as a lamp does a house; who is courteous (in spite of) the honour paid to him and of noble

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birth; who is the only sun of the middle world, namely earth, because he has dispelled all ignorance or darkness; who is considered the best of fathers and grandfathers who ranks first among the twice born; who knows the Vedas; who conforms to the precepts of the Vedas; who follows the Chandōga-sūtra, who has performed Vājapēya and other sacrifices; who belongs to the Bhāradvāja-Gōtra; who resides at Puniya, an excellent settlement of Brāhmaṇas, in the Tuṇḍākarāṣṭra; who is poor in sins, who is distinguished by his dress, who is a unique person; who cares for both worlds; who accomplishes the three objects of human life, who knows the four Vedas; whose chief objects are the five primary elements (*Pañchamahābhūta*), who knows the six auxiliary works, who resembles the sun, who possesses good qualities and who is an excellent Brahman,—a whole village, the original name of which was Koḍukolli which on becoming a Brahmadēya received the new name of Ekadhīramangalam, in Uṇḍivanakōṣṭhaka in the same rāṣṭra. . . .¹

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¹ ll. 71 to 103, Kaśākkuḍi plates, *S.I.I.*, vol. ii, part 2, pp. 358 ff.

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*Some Celebrities of the Period.*—It has already been pointed out that the king himself like other royal members of the family was a scholar of considerable reputation and is compared to Karṇisuta for his acquaintance with arts and to Valmīki the first poet in the composition of poems (*v.* 28) while verse 4 of the Taṇḍantōṭṭam plates record the fact that the learned people cling to him as the gods to Śakra. Among the Sanskrit poets of this period mentioned in the royal charters may be mentioned Paramēśvara, Uttara Karanika, and Trivikrama the composers of the prasasti in the Udayēndiram. Taṇḍantōṭṭam and Kaśākkuḍi plates. The celebrated scholar and saint Tirumangai Āḷvār was his contemporary and is another product of the times reputed for his skill in dialectics and known as the master of four kinds of poetical compositions. (*Chatushkavi*, Nālukaviperumāḷ). His work in the *Nalāyiraprabhandam* exceeds those of any other Vaishṇava saint excepting that of Nammāḷvār and forms one of the most precious collections that have come down to us. His great regard for the Pallava family and individual Pallava kings and their services finds continuous mention in his hymns to an extent far greater than in the *Tēvāram* hymns, or other works by the Vaishṇava Āḷvārs themselves. He was for some time a petty chieftain of Āḷināḍu in the Chōḷamaṇḍala before he became a devout Vaishṇava saint. His contributions in the *Nālāyiraprabandham* are *Periya-Tirumoḷi*, *Tirukuṛuṇḍaṇḍakam*, *Tiruṇeḍuṇḍaṇḍakam*, *Śiriya-Tirumaḍal*, *Periya-Tirumaḍal*, *Tiruvelukkūṛṛirukkai*.

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Among the temples attributable to Nandivarman II may be mentioned the Kēśavaperumāḷ temple at Kūram, the Muktēśvara temple at Kāñchīpuram, Vīraṭṭānēśvara at Tiruvadi and the Kuṇṛāṇḍarkōvil at Pudukotta. The Vaikuntaperumāḷ temple at Kāñchī, the Paramēśvaraviṇṇagaram of Tirumaṅgai Āḷvār owes its origin to this king and named after his personal name which was Paramēśvaran. Extensive renovation works must have taken place in a large number of other temples, if we could judge from grants recorded to many of these.

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The reign of Nandivarman Pallavamalla lasted for sixty-five years according to the inscription discovered recently at Mahabalipuram¹ and covered the greater part of the eighth century. He was succeeded on his death by his son called Dantivarman through the Rāshṭrakūṭa princess Rēva about A.D. 775. The notion that his reign was short having been distracted by continuous wars as a result of which his kingdom was much reduced now appears to be incorrect. The inscriptions so far discovered of his reign and that of his son have been found in regions as distant as Trichinopoly to Tirupati which probably comprised the extent of his dominions.

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¹ Ep. Coll. 666 of 1922.

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