Twilight of the Sultanate c17.s3: The Elite

Twilight of the Sultanate c17.s3

Language: English

The Elite

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The most important individual in the metropolis was the Sultan. As a ruler as well as the leader of the society he set the standards of fashion and patterns of behaviour. He was believed to be the richest person in the country as there was no distinction between his privy purse and the State treasury, but none of the Sultans seem to have built up a fund of personal wealth.¹⁶ In law the Sultan was expected to live a life of frugality;¹⁷ in practice most of the Sultans expended all their revenues on cities, palaces, the royal household, gardens, the army and the nobles.¹⁸

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¹⁶ Muhammad Tughlaq bequeathed to his successor a depleted treasury, and Fīrōz Tughlaq had often to borrow money from Sāhūkārs when he went on campaigns. T.F.S. (A), 52, 53, 56, 61. Some of the Hindu Rajas of the Deccan were far richer than the Sultans of Delhi. Wassāf, 351; Yule, *Ser Marco Polo*, II, 323; Also Abdur Razzāq.

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¹⁷ T.F.S. (B), 293-94.

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¹⁸ Alqal., 29.

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Vast expenses were incurred on the seraglio of the Sultan who married as many women as he liked. Two facts may be remembered in this connection. Firstly, women had no "rights" in those days. Secondly, the absence of scientific inventions necessitated the manual labour of human hands in providing for the comforts of the rich, and women were preferred as companions and servants.

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State work claimed most of the Sultan's time, but since there was not much "office work", rest and recreation, too, he had in abundance. Almost all the Sultans were fond of sport, both big-game shooting as well as taming and flying birds. A large number of falconers¹⁹ and pigeon-boys²⁰ were employed to keep the birds in trim. South Indians were also "much addicted" to fowling and hunting.²¹ The Sultan spent a considerable amount of his time in the company of his personal friends and courtiers (*nadīms*).²² The *nadīms* were generally those nobles who enjoyed the Sultan's intimacy. Their nearness to the king rendered them influential.²³

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¹⁹ Alqal., 68.

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²⁰ T.F.S. (B), 318.

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²¹ Nicolo Conti, 22.

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²² T.F.S. (A), 145-46. A long train of officials like Khāsādār (personal attendant), Sharbdār (keeper of drinkables) Sāqī-i-Khās (personal cup-bearer), and Chāshnīgīr (taster of food) made arrangements for the convivial assemblies (majlis-i-aīsh) of the king, at which he and his nadīms used to get virtually "soaked in wine".

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²³ T.F.S. (B), 357-58.

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The Sultans of the first half of the fifteenth century were comparatively poor both financially and in personal attainments. Their resources were limited. They could not live up to the standards of the fourteenth century kings. At least they could not indulge in criminal waste on such things as gold horse-shoes or gold bathtubs.²⁴ All the same they lived the normal life of luxury. Poets and musicians and dancers provided Mubārak Shāh Saiyyad and 'Alāuddīn 'Ālam Shāh with the usual recreation.²⁵ By the latter half of the fifteenth century much of the glory and prosperity seems to have returned as is clear from the description of the coronation Darbārs of Sikandar Lodī and Ibrāhīm Lodī.²⁶

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²⁴ I.B,, 69, 73.

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²⁵ T.M.S., 211.

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²⁶ *Makhzan*, 72 (a).

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As high dignitaries of the State, army officers, companions of the king, etc. the nobles occupied a position only next to the Sultan in the social life of the capital city and other cities of the Sultanate. The nobility of the Sultanate was composed of all sorts of foreigners and Indians. In the beginning the Turks formed the bulk of the cadre, but later on Mughals, better known as neo-Muslims, Arabs, Egyptians, Afghans, as well as Indian Muslims began to obtain high positions. The Afghans predominated in the fifteenth century both in numbers and in influence. They were entitled Amīrs, Maliks and Khans. Their salaries were high and they held high administrative and military assignments.²⁷ Though the figures of the salaries of nobles for the fourteenth century cannot be accepted for the fifteenth, the emoluments still seem to have been considerable. Important nobles held high positions as governors of provinces and commanders in the army, and tried to emulate the Sultan in every way. In the latter half of the fifteenth century some of the nobles built mansions as would almost rival the King's palace.²⁸ Their wealth introduced into their lives all the uses and abuses of luxury. Woman and wine and song and chess²⁹ and *chougan* were their common pastimes.³⁰ But their way of life did not always sap their vitality. Almost all the noblemen of the medieval period were fond of field sports and swordsmanship, and were keenly interested in military exercises. Many amongst them were "learned, humble, polite and courteous".³¹ Almost all were patrons of art and letters.

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²⁷ Every Khan received two lakh *tankās*, every Malik from 50 to 60 thousand *tankās*, every Amīr from 40 to 50 thousand *tankās* and so on. Land too was assigned to Khans, Maliks and Amīrs (Alqal., 71). Similar is the testimony of Ibn Battūta (I.B., 129) and Shams Sirāj 'Afīf. T.F.S. (A), 296-97, 437-38.

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²⁸ E.g. the Bārā Khambā in Delhi. Percy Brown, *Indian Architecture, Islamic Period*. According to Ibn Battūta the cost of a nobleman's mansion ranged from four to six thousand gold *tankās* (dinārs), I.B., 141.

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²⁹ W.M., 37 (b).

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³⁰ T.S.A., 42.

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³¹ I.B., 13.

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In the fourteenth century, especially under strong kings, the nobles served the State loyally. But during the period under review, when the Sultanate had become weak, many a nobleman had established his independent State. Even the iqta'dārs often-times flouted the authority of the Sultanate. In these circumstances it is not surprising that from Mallū Iqbāl Khan to Sarwarul Mulk there were many noblemen who in many ways were more powerful than the king himself. Be that as it may, the presence of high officers and nobles in the city lent it a certain lustre.

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The 'Ulema and the Mashāikh formed another small section of the city people. The 'Ulema learnt logic and philosophy, studied and interpreted the Shar' and generally held high judicial appointments. Though not quite rich, they were universally respected for their learning and piety.

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Then there were the Sūfī saints and Hindu Yogīs. They were spread all over the country and used to keep in intimate touch with the common people. They had dedicated themselves to the devotion of God. In the writings of the fourteenth century there are many references about the life and activities of the saints, and it would be right to presume that the same pattern continued in the fifteenth century. Reverence for the saints almost bordered on worship.³² Even the kings were very respectful towards the saints to whom they gave liberal grants.³³ But the true saints shunned all offers of gift or service.³⁴

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³² F.F., 118. A.F., 57. Common forms of paying respects were by touching the feet and placing of one's head on the saint's feet. Hugging and embracing were done for greeting. A.F., 59.

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³³ I.B., 70; T.F.S. (A), 179.

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³⁴ R.Q., 39-40; F.F., 80-81; S.A., 102. T.S.A., 36.

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Muslim saints were not necessarily ascetics.³⁵ Chronicles dealing with the fifteenth century history abound in love stories of *darweshes* and *faqīrs* (mendicants)³⁶ who seem to be quite in evidence both in the cities and villages.³⁷ They helped in creating a healthy social and political atmosphere. Respected by kings and commoners alike they played the part of peace-makers in times of war. Shaikh Sadruddīn interceded with Tīmūr on behalf of the Hindu ruler of Bhatnīr. Shaikh Ahmad helped in the release of many prisoners Tīmūr had taken in India. Similarly because of Shaikh Ilmuddīn's efforts peace was concluded between Iqbāl Khan and Bahrām Turkbachchā of Samana, and Saiyyad Shamsuddīn tried to bring about reconciliation between Dariyā Khan and Khawājā Bāyezīd, the son of Bhalūl. Similarly in the early years of the sixteenth century Shaikh Yūsuf Qattāl tried to stop the war between Islām Khan of Kara and Ibrāhīm Lodī. There are numerous other instances of their role as peace-makers in the fifteenth century.

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³⁵ Shaikh Farīduddīn Shakargunj married four wives and had five sons and three daughters (R.Q., 3). Shaikh Qutbuddīn Saiyyad Husain Kirmānī, uncle of the author of *Siyārul-Auliyā*, used to put on garments of the finest Chinese silks and Kamkhwābs, and always used to have *pān* in his mouth (S.A., 188). Shaikh Nizāmuddīn also used to relish betel (S.A., 125). But on the whole the saints lived a life of simplicity. Poverty was their ornament (R.Q., 20), and because of impecuniosity Nizāmuddīn had to go without dinner on many a day. (S.A., 101).

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³⁶ There is an interesting anecdote about a *faqīr* and the bride of son of Tātār Khan. T.S.A., 53-54; W.M. 19 (b), 20 (a-b). Ahmad Yādgār relates another story about the love of a *darwēsh* and a woman. T.S.A., 102-10. Love between a Hindu girl and a *darwēsh* created a flutter. T.S.A., 106.

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³⁷ T.S.A., 125.

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Rich and poor, high and low,³⁸ men and women, all used to become disciples of saints. Their Khanqāhs (monasteries) were the meeting place of scholars, nobles and commoners, and some of the books written by their disciples constitute a valuable source of social history. Musical concerts were a common feature at the Khanqāhs, and Qawwāls used to pass whole nights singing the praise of the Almighty. Great trust was reposed in the spiritual power of the saints; popular superstition credited them with the possession of supernatural powers.³⁹ Although the Sūfī saints could not rise above the superstitions of the age and believed in alchemy and miracles,⁴⁰ yet they, unlike the Mullās, clung not to the letter of the Holy Book but to its spirit. Their renunciation, simplicity and piety had a salutary effect upon the lives of the people.⁴¹ Large-scale conversions of the Hindus were due not to the efforts of the rulers, 'Ulemā or Mullā, but those of the Sūfī saints.

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³⁸ F.F., 190, 191. Also S.A. 102.

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³⁹ F.F., 209-210; T.F.S. (B), 330-32; T.S.A. 27.

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⁴⁰ A.F., 95; I.B., 164-66.

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⁴¹ T.F.S. (B) 341.

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Unlike the Muslim saints and *darwēshes*, the Hindu Yogīs and Sanyasīs were celibates and lived a life of renunciation and austerity.⁴² Marco Polo and Ibn Battūta met such ascetics and their description shows that the Yogīs were very much in evidence all over the country throughout the medieval times,⁴³ and like the Muslim saints they seem to have enjoyed universal respect. But they did not and probably could not do any proselytising work. Being ascetics, they even kept away from the people. All the same, contact of the people with Muslim saints and Hindu Yogīs⁴⁴ helped in the evolution of Hindu-Muslim understanding as both were revered by all sections of the people.⁴⁵