Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India, A.D. 1000–1800 c25: Appendix A: Loss of Indian Population During Mahmud Ghaznavi's Invasions
Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India, A.D. 1000–1800 c25
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Appendix A: Loss of Indian Population During Mahmud Ghaznavi's Invasions
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Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India seventeen times. These invasions have been discussed in detail by Professor Mohammad Habib,¹ Dr. M. Nazim,² Sir Wolseley Haig,³ and Sir Henry Elliot.⁴ We are here concerned only with the loss to the Indian population, that is, the loss of numbers in killed or carried away as captives out of the country in the course of these invasions, and with no other details or controversies. The figures in the following resume of the invasions have, therefore, been taken from Elliot and Dowson's work in which Elliot has sifted all available evidence and has given figures provided by contemporary and later chroniclers. The figures given by Utbi have been collected from Elliot as well as Reynold's translation of the *Kitab-i-Yamini*.⁵ Original sources and authorities which provide the data have also been cited.
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¹ *Sultan Mahmud of Ghaznin*, op. cit. (IV, n. 20), pp. 23-59.
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² *The Life and Times of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna* (Cambridge, 1931), pp. 42-122.
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³ *C.H.I.*, III, op. cit. (II, n. 25), pp. 13-26.
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⁴ E and D, op. cit. (I, n. 2), II, Appendix, pp. 434-78.
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⁵ Op. cit. (IX, n. 1), pp. 14-51.
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At the end the figures of the killed, carried away as prisoners etc. have been consolidated. Where no figures are available, the columns have been left blank, or our own estimates have been given within brackets followed by marks of interrogation.
Mahmud Ghazni's Invasions, A.C. 1000-1030
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1. Frontier Towns, A.D. 1000.
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After taking many forts and provinces, Mahmud appointed his own governors. No figures of killed or captured are given (T.A., Ferishtah).
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2. Peshawar, Waihind, A.D. 1001-02.
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Against Jayapal whose army consisted of 12,000 cavalry, 30,000 infantry and 300 elephants. 15,000 Indians were killed. Captives taken by Mahmud 500,000 of both sexes (Utbi). Elliot's figure is 5,000 killed (vol. II, p. 438)
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Then Mahmud captured Waihind...Figures of the killed and captured have not been given by any chronicler. It may be presumed that a number equal to the one killed at Peshawar was killed at Waihind also because it was "a very important and thickly populated city."
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3. *Bhera (Bhatia) A.D. 1004-05.
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The city was as wealthy as imagination can conceive in property, armies and military weapons. Fighting for four days and nights. Number of casualties not given. Raja Bijai Rai committed suicide. "The army of the Sultan moved on, committing slaughter and pillage...(and captured) usual share of property. He remained at Bhatia till he had cleaned it from pollution." All the inhabitants of the palace, except those who became converts to Islam, were put to the sword (Utbi).
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4. *Multan, A.D. 1005-06.
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Ibn Asir, Mir Khwand and Haider Razi make the ruler Daud flee to Ceylon. Utbi says that a fine of 20,000,000 dirhams was levied from the inhabitants (Even if an average of 100 dirhams paid for each man, it should be a town of about 200,000 people).
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Unsuri informs that on the way at Multan Mahmud took 200 forts (killing 200,000 in the process). According to Utbi Mahmud marched on indulging in "slaughter, imprisonment, pillage, depopulation and fire."
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5. *Against Nawasa Shah A.D. 1007.
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After defeating Nawasa Shah, Mahmud "cut down the harvest of idolatry with the sickle of his sword and spear." This and the previous victory (at Multan) were witnesses "to his exalted state of proselytism" (Utbi). But no figures of the slain or captured are given.
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6. *Waihind, Nagarkot, A.D. 1008-09.
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Utbi. Battle at Waihind and then fight with Brahmapal, the son of Anandpal and "grinding stone of slaughter revolved." Battle from morning till evening. The victors slew the vanquished wherever they were found (in retreat?) in jungles, passes, plains and hills. March towards Nagarkot. Fort of Bhimnagar captured with immense booty.
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Ferishtah. Mahmud marched against Anandpal. Rajas of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Delhi and Ajmer joined Anandpal. Fighting near Peshawar. Gakkhars had also joined. About 30,000 infidel Gakkhars penetrated Mahmud’s lines. Anandpal’s elephant fled. 8,000 Hindus were killed in the retreat. (How many in various battles ? 25000 ?) No figures given.
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7. Tarain, A.D. 1010.
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Utbi. “Friends of God committed slaughter in every hill and valley.” Sultan returned with plunder. After it Jaipal offered an Indian contingent of 2,000 men as part of the annual tribute. The troops were sent at least for the next five years (there is evidence that they were sent in 1015).
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8. Multan, A.D. 1011.
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Mirat-i-Masudi. After this second invasion and plunder of Multan, it was deserted. Anandpal fled to Ucch.
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9. Ninduna, Kashmir Valley, A.D. 1014.
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T.A. : Mahmud “obtained great spoil and a large number of slaves.” Figures of the killed not given. About prisoners of war Utbi says, “and slaves were so plentiful that they became very cheap; and men of respectability in their native land (India) were degraded by becoming slaves of common shopkeepers (in Ghazni).”
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10. Thanesar, A.D. 1015.
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Utbi: “The blood of the infidels flowed so copiously that the stream was discoloured…and people were unable to drink it. The Sultan returned with plunder which it is impossible to recount”. But he does not give any figures. Ferishtah: “On this occasion the Muhammadan army brought to Ghaznin 200,000 captives, so that the capital (Ghazna) appeared like an Indian city, for every soldier of the army had several slaves and slave girls.”
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11 Lohkot, A.D. 1016.
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Ferishtah : “The Sultan suffered much because of the snow in Kashmir Returned.
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12. Kanauj, Mathura, A.D. 1018-19.
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Utbi, Khwandmir, Nizamuddin, Ferishtah. Mahmud takes Baran, crossing the Jumna takes Mathura, and then recrossing the river proceeds to Kanauj.
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Number of killed not given but considering the description of the battle must have been considerable. "Many infidels were...slain or taken prisoners in this sudden attack, and the Musalmans paid no regard to the booty till they had satiated themselves with the slaughter of the infidels."
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In Mahaban "nearly 50,000 were killed and drowned" (Utbi). Much booty with slaves collected.
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On his return march to Kanauj, "the Sultan levelled to the ground every fort... He colle-cted so much booty, prisoners and wealth, that the fingers of those who counted them would have been tired." (Utbi).
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In Kanauj proper "many effected their escape" and "were scattered abroad" and "those who did not fly were put to death." Soldiers were given leave to plunder and take prisoners.
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In the fort of Munj, Manj, or Manaich which held out for fifteen days (Firishtah), most people were killed and many others while escaping Similar things happened at Asi (Utbi).
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On return to Ghazni the booty was found to consist (besides huge wealth) 53,000 captives (T.A.). But Utbi is more detailed. *He says that "the number of prisoners may be conceived from the fact, that each was sold for from two to ten dirhams. These were afterwards taken to Ghazna, and the merchants came from distant cities to purchase them, so that the countries of Mawarau-n-nahr, Iraq and Khurasan were filled with them".* The Tarikh-i-Alfi adds that the fifth share due to the Saiyads was 150,000 slaves. If that be true the total number of prisoners was 750,000.
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13. Battle of Rahib, A.D. 1020-21.
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Figures of killed, captured etc., not given but "some of the infidels asked for mercy after being wounded, some were taken prisoners, some were killed, and the rest took to flight (Utbi). Immense booty fell into the hands of the Musalmans (T.A.) which must have included prisoners.
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14. Kirat, Nur, Lohkot and Lahore, A.D. 1021-22.
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Mahmud first attacked Kirat. Sahin Ali ibn Ilar was sent to reduce Nur. Lohkot in Kashmir was attacked but without much success. Lahore and its neighbouring country was occupied. From now Punjab formed a province of Mahmud's empire. (T.A.).
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15. Gwalior/Kalinjar A.D. 1022-23. No figures available.
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16. Somnath A.D. 1025.
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On the way to Somnath Mahmud came upon "several forts... He killed the people who were in these places ;...(later) he met 20,000 fighting men..., put them to flight and plundered their possessions. (Then) marched to Dabalwarah...Mahmud took the place and slew the men."
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At Somnath there was a "fearful slaughter." "A dreadful slaughter followed at the gate of the temple". At Somnath "the number of the slain exceeded 50,000" (Ibn-ul-Asir).
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After Somnath. Mahmud marched against Raja Bhim, chief of Nahrwala. "His whole property, with numerous prisoners, fell into the hands of the army of Islam. All men who were found in the fort were put to the sword".
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17. Against Jats of Jud. A.D. 1026-27.
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Most of the Jats were drowned, and those who were not so destroyed were put to the sword. The Sultan's army proceeded to the places where their families were concealed, and took them all prisoners. (T.A.).
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Table 15
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*Showing Loss of Indian population during Mahmud Ghazni's invasions*
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| S. No. | Region | killed | carried away as prisoners |
| 1. | Frontier Towns | — | — |
| 2. | Peshawar Waihind | 15,000 (15,000) 5,000 ? | 500,000 ? — |
| 3. | Bhera | — | — |
| 4. | Multan | (200,000) | — |
| 5. | Punjab | — | — |
| 6. | Waihind, to Nagarkot in various battles | 8000 25,000 ? | — — |
| 7. | Tarain. Indian troops sent to Ghazna 5 years (2,000 each year) | 10,000 — | — |
| 8. | Multan | Town deserted | — |
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| S. No. | Region | killed | carried away as prisoners |
| 9. | Kashmir | — | Large number, sold very cheap in Ghazni |
| 10. | Thanesar | Large number | 200,000 |
| 11. | Lohkot | — | — |
| 12. | Baran | — | — |
| | Mahaban | 50,000 | — |
| | Mathura | — | — |
| | Kanauj | — | large numbers |
| | Munj & Asi | Most killed | |
| | Total | (150,000 ?) | 53,000 (T.A.) 750,000 (Alfi) |
| 13. | Rahib | — | — |
| 14. | Kirat and other places | — | — |
| 15. | Gwalior | — | — |
| | Kalinjar | | |
| 16. | Dabalwarah | — | — |
| | Somnath | 50,000 | — |
| | Anhilwara | All in the fort | A large number |
| 17. | Jat | Many | families of Jats |
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The figures of killed and prisoners of war carried away by Mahmud of Ghazni, as given by contemporary and later writers, cannot be accepted as being literally correct; but these do give an idea of the colossal loss to India's population suffered during his raids. Of course those who were converted to Islam remained a part of the Indian population but those who were killed or carried away as slaves, meant a permanent loss to India. This great loss is attested to by Alberuni at two places. Although he is not in a position to give any figures, what he says in significant: "Mahmūd utterly ruined the prosperity of the country. and performed there wonderful exploits, by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust scattered in all directions..., Hindu sciences have retired far away from those parts of the country conquered by us..."¹ At another place he writes: "This Hindu Shahi dynasty is now extinct, and of the whole house (Jayapala, Ananpala, Trilochanpala etc.) there is no longer the slightest remnant in existence."² This ruling family gave a very tough resistance in which thousands and thousands perished. It "was driven from Kabul to Bhera, from Bhera to Lahore...(and)...from Lahore to Kanauj", before it was finally extinguished after a quarter of century's persistant struggle.³ The total of figures killed in three campaigns of Mahmud (2, 12, and 16) and enslaved in three campaigns (2, 10, and 12) comes to about 4,00,000. It is true that these figures undoubtedly relate to only major exploits. There were minor ones too in which demographic loss was not so great. However, the disorganized flight of the panic-striken people to distant places must have killed large numbers, through exposure, starvation, and epidemic. Mahmud carried out seventeen invasions. Therefore, to multiply this figure by five would not be unreasonable. In brief, during the first quarter of the eleventh century the loss to Indian population due to Mahmud's invasions was about 2,000,000.
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¹ Alberuni, *op. cit.* (IV, n. 2), I, p. 22.
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² *Ibid.*, II, p. 13.
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³ E and D, II, Appendix, p. 462.
Cites (2)
- Tārīkh-i Firishta — Muḥammad Qāsim Hindū Shāh Firishta 1606, Persian
- تحقيق ما للهند من مقولة مقبولة في العقل أو مرذولة — Arabic