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The Legacy of Muslim Rule in India c11.s8: Poorest of the poor

The Legacy of Muslim Rule in India c11.s8

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Poorest of the poor

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Before closing, a word may be said about the exploitation of the poorest of the poor, the beggars and the handicapped. Muslim law decrees mutilation as punishment for certain crimes and a large number of healthy people were blinded, mutilated and made physically handicapped under Muslim rule. The punishments of sultans like Balban and Muhammad bin Tughlaq were terribly severe. Alauddin Khalji had ordered that if any shopkeeper sold any article short-weight, a quantity of flesh equal to the deficiency in weight was to be cut off from his haunches.¹⁶⁸ Firoz Tughlaq lists some of the punishments for common offences, which were prevalent before his time. These comprised of cutting of hands and feet, noses and ears, putting out eyes, pulverizing the bones with mallets, burning parts of the body, nailing the hands and feet, hamstringing etc., etc.¹⁶⁹ As seen earlier, many cultivators and labourers were also reduced to the position of beggars from the Sultanate through Mughal times because of high rate and severity of collection of *Kharaj*.

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All such unfortunate people could only resort to begging for a living. They were sometimes given doles and meals by kind-hearted people: free feeding (*langar*) was common for the poor beggars. But sometimes even such helpless people were exploited by the rich who extracted their pound of flesh even from them. An Amir by the name of Saiyyad-ul-Hijab was very close to Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq. He used to help all and sundry, but for a consideration. It is narrated, says Shams Siraj Afif, that one day a helpless *faqir* (beggar) approached him for assisting him get some help from the Sultan. The nobleman gave him necessary guidance for achieving his purpose. The *faqir* did as advised, and the Sultan ordered that the suppliant be given one *tankah* per day from the Zakat fund. But the help rendered was not gratuitous. The said Amir, continues Afif, after rendering help to the needy used to extract something by way of *shukrana*.¹⁷⁰ No further comment is necessary.

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¹ Jaisi, *Padmavat*, pp. 154, 413; Pelsaert, p. 60; Ashraf, *Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan*, p. 193.

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² Price, Major David, *Memoirs of the Principal Events of Muhammadan History* (London, 1921), III (I), p. 267; Lamb, Harold, *Tamerlane the Earth Shaker* (London, 1929), p. 272; Brown, Percy, *Indian Architecture* (Islamic Period), p. 26; Lal, *Twilight of the Sultanate*, p. 40.

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³ *Babur Nama*, II, pp. 518, 520.

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⁴ Only a few examples of this prosperity by writers of the fourteenth century may be cited. Shihabuddin says: The general food of the Indians (Muslims) is beef and goats flesh it was a mere matter of habit, for in all the villages of India there are sheep in thousands (E and D, III, p. 583).

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Footnotes:

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Ibn Battuta says: When they have reaped the autumn harvest, they sow spring grains in the same soil in which autumn grains had been sown, for their country is excellent and the soil is fertile. As for rice they sow it three times a year.. (Mahdi Husain, trs., p.19). Shams Siraj Afif writing about the prosperity of Orissa at the time of Firoz Tughlaqs invasion says: The country of Jajnagar was in a very flourishing state, and the abundance of corn and fruit supplied the wants of the army the numbers of animals of every kind were so great that no one cared to take them Sheep were found in such countless numbers (Afif, Persian text, pp.165-66. Also pp. 180, 295).

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For prosperity in the Deccan see Kincaid and Parasnis, *A History of Maratha People*, I, p. 37; Yule, *Ser Marco Polo*, II, p. 323; Wassaf, Bombay text, pp. 521-31.

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About the prosperity of Vijayanagar countryside see Abdur Razzaq in *Mutla-us-Sadain*, E and D, IV, pp. 105-6.

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Also Barani pp. 216-17,290-91; and Farishtah, Lucknow text, p. 120, *darbar* (Afif, p. 273).

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⁵ Pelsaert, pp. 60-61.

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⁶ Quoted in Moreland, *India at the Death of Akbar*, pp. 268-69.

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⁷ Liberally cited in A.B.M. Habibullahs *The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India*, First ed., Lahore, 1945.

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⁸ Barani, pp. 283-84.

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⁹ Charles Hamiltons trs. of the *Hidaya*, Chapter IV.

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¹⁰ Aghnides, *Muhammedan Theories of Finance*, pp. 251-52, 253-54.

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¹¹ Moreland, *Agrarian System of Moslem India*, p. 32 fn.

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¹² Barani, pp. 216-17 and 291. Also Baranis *Fatawa-i-Jahandari*, pp. 46-48.

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¹³ Barani, p. 287; Farishtah, p. 109.

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¹⁴ Aghnides, *Muhammadan Theories of Finance*, pp. 251-54.

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¹⁵ Afif, p. 383.

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¹⁶ Barani, pp. 291, 297-98.

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¹⁷ Isami, *Futuh-us-Salatin*, Agra text, pp. 569-70; *Tarikh-i-Wassaf*, Bombay Text, Book IV, p. 448, Book V, pp. 646, 647.

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¹⁸ Barani, p. 288.

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¹⁹ *Ibid.*, pp. 288, 305, 307.

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²⁰ R.P. Tripathi, *Some Aspects of Muslim Administration*, p. 262.

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²¹ Barani, pp. 288-89, 292.

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²² For Alauddins Market Control see Lal, *History of the Khaljis*, pp. 197-225.

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²³ Barani, p. 430.

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²⁴ Hajiuddabir, *Zafar-ul-Wali*; *Barani*, pp. 479-80. For a detailed discussion on the Sultans measures see Ishwari Prasad, *A History of the Qaraunak Turks in India*, pp. 67-74.

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²⁵ *Babur Nama*, II, p. 487.

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²⁶ *Ibid.*, p. 486. For Indian rains also Bernier, pp. 431-34.

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²⁷ Ibn Battuta, pp. 17-20.

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²⁸ Afif, pp. 130-31.

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²⁹ W.H. Moreland, *From Akbar to Aurangzeb*, pp. 253-55.

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³⁰ Moreland in *Journal of Indian History*, IV, pp. 78-79 and XIV, p. 64.

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³¹ Abul Fazl, *Akbar Nama*, Beveridge, II, pp. 159-60.

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³² Manucci, II, p. 451.

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³³ Manrique II, p. 272.

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³⁴ Bernier, p.205.

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³⁵ Bernier, pp. 226-27.

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³⁶ *Ibid.*, p. 227.

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³⁷ *Loc. cit.*

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³⁸ Moreland, *op. cit.*, p. 255.

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³⁹ Tara Chand, *History of Freedom Movement in India*, I, p. 121. Also, Sir John Strachey, *India, Its Administration and Progress* (third Edition), p. 126.

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⁴⁰ Abbas Sarwani, E and D, IV, p. 414.

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⁴¹ Firoz Shah Tughlaq, *Fatuhat-i-Firoz Shahi*, English trs. E and D, III, p. 368; Hindi trs. in Rizvi, *Tughlaq Kalin Bharat*, II, p. 337.

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⁴² Afif, pp. 268-69; Ishwari Prasad, *Qaraunah Turks*, p. 331; Badaoni, Ranking I, p. 377.

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⁴³ For detailed references see Lal, *Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India*, pp. 160-161.

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⁴⁴ Lal, *Indian Muslims*, pp. 50, 63-64; C.H.I., III, pp. 305-306; Census of India Report, 1901, IV, Pt. I, Bengal, pp. 165-181.

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⁴⁵ Barani, pp. 288-89, 292; Tripathi, *Some Aspects of Muslim Administration*, p. 262.

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⁴⁶ Moreland, *India at the Death of Akbar*, pp. 112-14 and *The Agrarian System of Moslem India*, pp. 135-36, 146-47.

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⁴⁷ Barani, p. 291; Yahiya, p. 184. For detailed references see Lal, *Twilight of the Sultanate*, pp. 73-75.

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⁴⁸ Barani, p. 303.

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⁴⁹ *Ibid.*, p. 304

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⁵⁰ Alauddin procured grain from the cultivators, and that too with great severity, to keep Government godowns ever replenished (Barani, pp. 305, 307).

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⁵¹ Lal, *History of the Khaljis*, pp. 1 97, 290-91.

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⁵² Afif, p. 294.

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⁵³ Nizamuddin Ahmad, *Tabqat-i-Akbari*, I, p. 338; Farishtah, I, p. 187.

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⁵⁴ Abdullah, *Tarikh-i-Daudi*, Bankipore Ms., fols, 223-24.

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⁵⁵ Abul Fazl, *Ain*, I, pp. 65-71.

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⁵⁶ Moreland, *From Akbar to Aurangzeb*, pp. 253-57.

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⁵⁷ Barani, pp. 328-29; Afif, p. 290; Farishtah, p. 119.

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⁵⁸ Afif, pp. 112, 122, 289; Sharafuddin Yazdi, *Zafari Nama*, II, pp. 87-88, 152-54, 156.

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⁵⁹ Cited in Moreland, *India at the Death of Akbar*, p. 269.

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⁶⁰ Bernier, pp. 235-36.

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⁶¹ Tara Chand, *History of the Freedom Movement*, I, p. 1 21.

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⁶² R.H. Major, *India in the Fifteenth Century*.

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⁶³ *Babur Nama*, II, p. 519.

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⁶⁴ Afif, trs. E and D, III, pp. 289-90.

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⁶⁵ Barani, p. 291.

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⁶⁶ Ibn Battuta, p. 124.

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⁶⁷ Barani, p. 268.

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⁶⁸ Amir Khusrau, *Deval Rani*, p. 50; Vidyapati, *Kirtilata*, pp. 42-44, 70-72.

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⁶⁹ Lal, *Twilight*, pp. 70-106.

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⁷⁰ Mundy, *Travels*, II, p. 90.

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⁷¹ Manucci, I, p. 134.

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⁷² *Tarikh-i-Salim Shahi*, trs. Price, pp 225-26.

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⁷³ Kolf, *Naukar, Rajput and Sepoy*, p. 7.

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⁷⁴ Mundy, *Travels*, II, pp. 90, 185, 186.

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⁷⁵ For action in this region in the reign of Akbar see Abul Fazl, *Akbar Nama*, II, pp. 195-96.

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⁷⁶ *Ibid.*, I, p. 475.

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⁷⁷ *Babur Nama* trs. by Mrs. A.S. Beveridge, pp. 487-88.

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⁷⁸ Erskine, *Baburs Memoirs* (Leyden and Erskine, pp. 315 n 2) cites from Col. Wilks, *Historical Sketches*, Vol.I, p. 309, note; Amir Khusrau, *Nuh Sipehr*, E and D, III, p. 558.

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⁷⁹ *Berniers Travels*, p. 226, also quoted in Moreland, *India at the Death of Akbar*, p. 135.

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⁸⁰ Minhaj, E and D, II, p. 348.

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⁸¹ Barani, p. 59; Farishtah, I, p. 77.

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⁸² Barani, p. 56.

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⁸³ *Malfuzai-i-Timuri*, E and D, III, p. 395.

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⁸⁴ *Babur Nama*, II, p. 519.

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⁸⁵ Habibullah, A.B.M., *The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India*, pp. 174, 185 n.44.

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⁸⁶ Ibn Battuta, p. 124.

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⁸⁷ *Babur Nama*, II, p. 487.

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⁸⁸ Badaoni, Ranking, I, p. 377.

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⁸⁹ Finch, William, in Foster, *Early Travels*, p. 154.

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⁹⁰ Moreland, *India at the Death of Akbar*, pp. 27-28 n.

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⁹¹ *Babur Nama*, II, p. 518.

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⁹² Their present religious head Mata Karuna Guru has withdrawn support from the Congress, says a press report of the *Times of India* datelined Raipur 14 February, 1990.

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⁹³ Alberuni, I, pp. 101-102.

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⁹⁴ Hughes, *Dictionary of Islam*, p. 598.

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⁹⁵ Smith, *Akbar the Great Mogul*, p. 108; C.H.I., IV, pp. 115-16.

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⁹⁶ *Chachnama*, E and D, I, pp. 172-73; trs. Kalichbeg, p. 154.

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⁹⁷ Ibid., E and D, I, pp. 173, 181, 211.

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⁹⁸ Wink, *Al-Hind*, I, p. 161.

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⁹⁹ *Tarikh-i-Yamini*, E and D, II, p. 26; Elliots Appendix, p. 438; Farishtah, I, p.24.

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¹⁰⁰ Utbi, E and D, II, p. 39.

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¹⁰¹ Farishtah, I, p.28.

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¹⁰² Lal, *Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India*, pp. 211-13. Also Utbi, E and D, II, p. 50 and n. 1.

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¹⁰³ *Kamil-ut-Tawarikh*, E and D, II, p. 250.

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¹⁰⁴ *Ibid.*, p. 251.

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¹⁰⁵ *Tarikh-i-Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah*, p. 20.

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¹⁰⁶ *Tabqat-i-Nasiri*, Persian Text, p. 175. Also Farishtah, I, p. 66.

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¹⁰⁷ Minhaj, E and D, II, p. 348.

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¹⁰⁸ *Ibid.*, p. 367; Farishtah, I, p. 71.

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¹⁰⁹ Minhaj, pp. 371, 380-81.

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¹¹⁰ Barani, p. 59.

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¹¹¹ Afif, p. 272.

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¹¹² Barani, p. 318; Lal, *History of the Khaljis*, pp. 214-15.

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¹¹³ Afif, p. 267-73.

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¹¹⁴ Barani, pp. 314-15.

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¹¹⁵ Amir Khusrau, *Nuh Sipehr*, E and D, III, p. 561.

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¹¹⁶ Vidyapati, *Kirtilata*, pp. 72-74.

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¹¹⁷ Barani, pp. 313-15.

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¹¹⁸ *Masalik-ul-Absar*, E and D, III, p. 580.

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¹¹⁹ *Loc. cit.*

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¹²⁰ Ibn Battuta, p. 63, Hindi version by S.A.A. Rizvi in *Tughlaq Kalin Bharat*, Part I, Aligarh, p. 189.

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¹²¹ *Ibid.*, p. 123.

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¹²² Afif, p. 265. Also pp. 119-20.

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¹²³ *Ibid.*, p. 144. Also Lal, K.S., *The Mughal Harem*, pp. 19-38, 167-69, 170 and *Growth of Muslim Population*, p. 116.

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¹²⁴ *Akbar Nama*, II, p. 246; Du Jarric, *Akbar and the Jesuits*, pp. 152-59. Also pp. 28, 30, 70, 92.

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¹²⁵ *Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri*, I, p. 9.

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¹²⁶ Rawlinson, H.G., in C.H.I., IV, p. 424 and n.

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¹²⁷ Muhammad Aziz Ahmad, *Political History and Institutions of the Early Turkish Empire of Delhi*, pp. 147-48, 159.

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¹²⁸ Afif, pp. 272-73.

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¹²⁹ Barani, p. 59; Yazdi, *Zafar Nama*, II, p. 92; *Malfuzat-i-Timuri*, E and D, III, p. 436; Nizamuddin Ahmad, *Tabqat-i-Akbari*, I, p. 255; Farishtah, I, p. 77; *Akbar Nama*, II, p. 475.

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¹³⁰ Ibn Battuta, p. 71; Jahangir, *Tarikh-i-Salim Shahi*, p. 165; Burnes, *Travels into Bokhara*, I, p. 276; 11, p. 61.

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¹³¹ Al-Qalqashindi, *Subh-ul-Asha*, p. 76.

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¹³² Barbosa, *The Book of Duarte Barbosa*, I, p. 181; Barani, Fatawa-i-Jahandari, p. 25.

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¹³³ Barani, pp. 273, 376, 377.

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¹³⁴ *Ibid.*, pp. 58-59.

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¹³⁵ *Ibid.*, p. 314.

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¹³⁶ Sharma, C.N., *Mewar and the Moghul Emperors*, pp. 56, 76-77. Also Smith, *Akbar the Great Mogul*, p. 64.

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¹³⁷ After his (Firoz Tughlaqs) death, the heads of these his favoured slaves were cut off without mercy, and were made into heaps in front of the

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¹³⁸ *Masalik-ul-Absar*, E and D, III, pp. 580-81.

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¹³⁹ *Chachnama*, trs. Kalichbeg, pp. 153-54; Shah Nawaz Khan, *Maasir-ul-Umara*, I, p. 105.

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¹⁴⁰ *Ibid.*, trs. Kalichbeg, p. 155.

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¹⁴¹ She was captured by Malik Kafur and brought to Delhi. She was first married to Khizr Khan, then Mubarak Khalji married her forcibly. She was later on taken by Khusrau Shah - too much for a Hindu maiden (Lal, *History of the Khaljis*, pp. 234-36, 298-99).

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¹⁴² Nikitin in Major, *India in the Fifteenth Century*, p. 14.

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¹⁴³ Moreland, *India at the Death of Akbar*, pp. 267-8 and n.

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¹⁴⁴ *Ibid.*, p. 269.

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¹⁴⁵ Pelsaert, p. 60.

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¹⁴⁶ *Ibid.*, pp. 60-61.

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¹⁴⁷ Bernier, p. 228.

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¹⁴⁸ *Ibid.*, pp. 256, 288.

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¹⁴⁹ Ain, I, pp. 148-49, 139, 235; also Moreland, pp. 190-91 n.

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¹⁵⁰ Bernier, p. 229.

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¹⁵¹ Pelsaert, pp. 61-62.

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¹⁵² *Ibid.*, p. 62-63.

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¹⁵³ Barani, p. 316.

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¹⁵⁴ Ibn Battuta, p. 151.

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¹⁵⁵ Passage in *Tarikh-i-Daudi* as trs. by N.B. Roy in Niamatulahs *History of the Afghans*, p. 134.

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¹⁵⁶ Ahmad Yadgar, *Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afghana*, p. 24 and n, also p. 33.

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¹⁵⁷ *Ibid.*, 45.

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¹⁵⁸ A Sikandari silver tankah was equal to 30 copper *Bahlolis* (Thomas, *Chronicles of the Pathan kings of Delhi*, p. 336).

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¹⁵⁹ *Tarikh-i-Daudi*, Allahabad University Ms., fols. 137-38.

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¹⁶⁰ Afif, p. 136.

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¹⁶¹ Lal, *History of the Khaljis*, pp. 167-77.

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¹⁶² Pelsaert, p. 62.

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¹⁶³ Review of Dr. G.N. Sharma, *Social Life in Medieval Rajasthan* (1500-1800) by Mohammad Habib, *Medieval India, A Miscellany*, Vol. II, Aligarh, 1972, pp. 342-43.

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¹⁶⁴ Moreland, *India at the Death of Akbar*, pp. 192-93.

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¹⁶⁵ Foster, *Early Travels*, pp. 113,114; Tavernier, I, p. 38.

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¹⁶⁶ Bernier, p. 228; Moreland, India at the Death of Akbar, p. 187.

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¹⁶⁷ Pelsaert, p. 60.

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¹⁶⁸ Barani, p. 316.

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¹⁶⁹ Firoz Shah, *Fatuhat-i-Firoz Shahi*, Aligarh, 1954, p. 2.

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¹⁷⁰ Afif, pp. 446-50.

Cites (10)