The Legacy of Muslim Rule in India c5.s5: Astrology and Astronomy
The Legacy of Muslim Rule in India c5.s5
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Astrology and Astronomy
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Most medieval people of all creeds and countries believed in astrology. Astrology literally means the science of the stars. The name was formerly used as equivalent to astronomy, but later on became restricted in meaning to the science or psuedo-science which claims to enable people to judge of the effects and influences of the heavenly bodies on human and other mundane affairs. Astrology was not to the medievals an unscientific aberration. It was based on the understanding that the relationship of man to the Universe is as the microcosm (the little world) is to the macrocosm (the great world). Thus a knowledge of the heavens is essential for a true understanding of man himself. A knowledge of the movements of the planets and their position in the heavens, would therefore be of the utmost importance for man since, in the medieval phrase, superiors (in the heavens) ruled inferiors (on earth): and not only man but all were subject to the decrees of heavens, which themselves expressed the will of God.⁴² Roger Bacon (1214-1292?) considered astrology as the most practical of sciences.⁴³
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Astrology was practised by Muslims as by all other medieval people. Muhammad bin Qasim, the first invader of India, was despatched on his mission only after astrologers had pronounced that the conquest of Sind could be effected only by his hand.⁴⁴ Mahmud of Ghazni too believed in the predictions of astrologers.⁴⁵ Timur the invader writes in his *Malfuzat*: About this time there arose in my heart a desire to lead an expedition against the infidels and become a ghazi, and felt encouraged when he opened a *fal* (omen) in the Quran which said: O Prophet, make war upon infidels and unbelievers and treat them with severity-and he launched his attack on Hindustan.⁴⁶ The practice of consulting the Quran for *fal* was common among medieval Muslims.⁴⁷ The savant Alberuni gives details of Hindu literature on astrology and astronomy seen by him.⁴⁸ By and large Muslim kings and commoners in India decided their actions on the advice of the astrologers, soothsayers and omen mongers.
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Peoples faith in astrology was reinforced for seeking solution to their immediate problems and their curiosity to know their future. The first was done by astrologers and palm-readers by examining the hand and face of the applicant, turning over the leaves of the large book, and pretending to make certain calculations and then decide upon the *Sahet* (saiet) or propitious moment of commencing the business he may have in hand.⁴⁹ Amulets and charms were also prescribed for warding off distress, removing fear, obtaining success in an undertaking or victory in battle and a hundred other similar problems.⁵⁰ The second was done by preparing a horoscope. As usually practised, the whole heavens, visible and invisible, was divided by great circles into twelve equal parts, called *houses*. The houses had different names and different powers, the first being called the house of life, the second the house of riches, the third of brethren, the sixth of marriage, the eighth of death, and so on. To draw a persons horoscope, or cast his *nativity*, was to find the position of the heavens at the instant of his birth. The temperament of the individual was ascribed to the planet under which he was born, as *saturnine* from Saturn, *jovial* from Jupiter, *mercurial* from Mercury and so on. The virtues of herbs, gems, and medicines were also supposed to be due to their ruling planets.
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Kings and nobles gave large salaries to astrologers. The astrologers prepared horoscopes of princes and the elite. Muslim kings got horoscopes of all princes like Salim, Murad and Daniyal cast by Hindu Pandits.⁵¹ Jotik Ray, the court astrologer of emperor Jahangir used to make correct predictions after reading the kings horoscope. He was once weighed against gold and silver for reward.⁵² There were men and women *Rammals* (soothsayers) and clairvoyants at the court.⁵³ In short, the practice of consulting astrologers was common with high and low. The people never engaged even in the most trifling transaction without consulting them. They read whatever is written in heaven; fix upon the *Sahet*, and solve every doubt by opening the Koran.⁵⁴ No commanding officer is nominated, no marriage takes place, and no journey is undertaken without consulting Monsieur the Astrologer.⁵⁵ Naturally, the astrologers who frequented the court of the grandees are considered by them eminent doctors, and become wealthy.⁵⁶
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But there were charlatans also. They duped and exploited the poor and the credulous. Besides some people then as now had no faith in astrology. The French doctor Bernier was such an one. Describing the bazar held in Delhi near the Red Fort, Francois Bernier (seventeenth century) says that Hither, likewise, the astrologers resort, both Mahometan and Gentile. These wise doctors remain seated in the sun, on a dusty piece of carpet, handling some old mathematical instruments, and having open before them a large book which represents the sign of the Zodiac. In this way they attract the attention of the passenger by whom they are considered as so many infallible oracles. They tell a poor person his fortune for a *payssa* Silly women, wrapping themselves in a white cloth from head to foot, flock to the astrologers, whisper to them all the transaction of their lives, and disclose every secret with no more reserve than is practised by a penitent in the presence of her confessor. The ignorant and infatuated people really believe that the stars have an influence (on their lives) which the astrologers can control.⁵⁷
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Astrology and astronomy are closely interlinked. In medieval times astronomy was also considered a branch of psychology and medicine. Astronomy has an undoubtedly high antiquity in India. The Arabs began to make scientific astronomical observations about the middle of the eighth century, and for 400 years they prosecuted the science of *najum* with assiduity. The Muslims looked upon astronomy as the noblest and most exalted of sciences, for the study of stars was an indispensable aid to religious observances, determining for instance the month of Ramzan and the hours of prayers. Halaku Khan (Buddhist) founded the great Margha observatory at Azerbaijain. One at Jundishapur existed in Iran. In the fifteenth century Ulugh Beg, grandson of Amir Timur (Tamerlane), built an observatory at Samarqand. In Europe Copernicus in the fifteenth and Galileo and Newton in the seventeenth century did valuable work in the field of astronomy. In medieval India many Muslim chroniclers wrote about the movements of planets and stars,⁵⁸ but the name of Sawai Jai Singh II of Jaipur has become famous for his contribution to the science of astronomy. He built observatories or *Jantar-Mantars* at many places in the country for the study of the movements of stars and planets. A reputed geometer and scholar, Sawai Jai Singh II built the Delhi Jantar-Mantar in C.E. 1710 at the request of Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah. The observatory was used for naked-eye sighting, continuously monitoring the position of the sun, moon and planets in relation to background stars in the belt of the Zodiac. His aim was basically to make accurate predictions of eclipses and position of planets. He devised instruments of his own invention - the Samrat Yantra, the Jai Prakash, and the Ram Yantra. The Misr Yantra was added later by Jai Singhs son Madho Singh. The Samrat Yantra is an equinoctial dial. The Yantra measures the time of the day, correct to half a second; and the declination of the sun and other heavenly bodies. Other Jantar-Mantars of Jai Singh were built at Ujjain, Mathura, Banaras and Jaipur.⁵⁹