Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champa; Vol. II: Suvarnadvipa) v2.c14.t3: 1. Malay Peninsula after the disruption of the Śailendra Empire
Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champā; Vol. II: Suvarṇadvīpa) v2.c14.t3
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1. Malay Peninsula after the disruption of the Śailendra Empire
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The Mediaeval history of Malay Peninsula forms really an essential part of the history of the Śailendra empire which we have related above. The peculiar geographical position of the Malay Peninsula invested it with a special commercial importance, as it controlled the trade-route to East Indies. By the conquest of Sumatra and the Peninsula, the Śailendras obtained that commercial supremacy to which the Arab writers bear eloquent testimony. Henceforth the greater part of the Peninsula formed an important part of the empire, referred to by the Arabs as Zābag, and its fortunes rose and fell with Zābag. The Arabs refer to Kalāh as the principal port, and it has been identified with Keddah or Krah.¹
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¹ J. A., II-XIV (1919), pp. 214ff.
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As soon as Java rose to political importance, her eyes were naturally turned to the Malay Peninsula, as its possession was the key to the commercial supremacy over eastern waters. The details of the early stages of the attempt, on the part of Java, to obtain a footing in the Peninsula are somewhat vague and obscure. Rouffaer has advanced some arguments to show that king Siṇḍok of Java sent a naval expedition against the Malay Peninsula in the second quarter of the tenth century. Although Rouffaer's arguments are far from convincing, yet the hypothesis is not an improbable one.²
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² B. K. I., Vol. 77 (1921), p. 114.
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There are references to some Hindu states in Malay Peninsula during the period of Śailendra supremacy. In the first place, we may mention that Schlegel locates Ho-ling or Kaling of the Chinese writers in Malay Peninsula, and not in Java.¹ If we accept his view we find an important state in the Peninsula, whose history we have included in that of Java.
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¹ T'oung Pao, Serie I, Vol. IX, pp. 273ff.
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Schlegel further identifies Ts'ien'-chi-fuh, also called Pean-chi-poah (=Pañca-pur, pur meaning island), near Kaling, with the five islands viz. P. Rupat, P. Bancalis, P. Padang, P. Pandjore and P. Rantau, lying opposite Malacca.² He also quotes a passage from the New History of the T'ang Dynasty which "distinctly says that the 'Five Islands' in the Straits of Malacca were originally tributary states (or colonies) of Southern India". On this Schlegel observes: "There is no doubt that all these islands, as also Kaling on the main, were founded by Kalinga or Kling colonies who gave the name of their own country to the new settlements."³ This, in a way, corroborates the view put forward above on p. 227, viz. that the Śailendras came from Kalinga coast and conquered the Malay Peninsula.
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² Ibid, p. 279, fn. 25.
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³ Ibid, p. 287.
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We do not, however, know any particulars about the history of these "Five Islands", and, as noted above, the identifications, proposed by Schlegel, are extremely doubtful.
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In 983 A.D. we get a definite reference to another kingdom in Malay Peninsula. The Chinese pilgrim Fah-yu, leaving for India in or shortly after 983 A.D., received from the emperor letters of introduction to the kings whose territories he intended to visit. Among these are mentioned the king of San-fo-tsi and Sseu-ma-ki-mang, king of Ko-ku-la. Ko-ku-la has been unanimously located on the western coast of the Malay Peninsula. The fact that the king of San-fo-tsi and king of Ko-ku-la are mentioned separately in the same sentence does not necessarily prove that the latter was an independent king,¹ though it is not unlikely.
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¹ The information is given in the History of the Second Han Dynasty. The relevant passage, translated by E. Chavannes (Revue de l' histoire des religions, t. XXXIV, 1896, p. 52), has been reproduced in Ferrand's atricle in J. A., 11-XX (1922), p. 22. Krom, quoting the same passage, gives the date as 963 A. D. (Geschiedenis²-p. 227). For the name of the king, cf. discussions by Pelliot (B. E. F. E. O., Vol, IV, p. 311).
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Indeed, according to the theory of Rouffaer, there were about this time several powerful states in Malay Peninsula which figure so prominently in connection with the overthrow of the Javanese kingdom of Dharmavaṁśa in 1007 A. D., and against which Airlangga had to carry on a bitter and prolonged fight. But we have already discussed this point (Bk. III, chap. II) and need not refer to it again.
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It is in connection with the invasion of Rājendra Cola, early in the eleventh century A. D., that we for the first time obtain a list of states in the Malay Peninsula which formed a part of the empire of the Śailendras. Chau Ju-kua also gives us a similar list of states at the beginning of the thirteenth century A. D. The names and identification of these states have already been discussed above (pp. 175 ff, pp. 193 ff.).
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By a combination of these two lists we may form a general idea of the petty states that flourished in the Malay Peninsula.
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The kingdoms of Grahi, Mā-ppappālam, Talaittakkolam, Tāmralinga, Māyiruḍingam, Pa-t'a, and Ts'ien-Mai formed the northern group. The northernmost state was Grahi, which separated Kambujadeśa from the Peninsular dominion of San-fo-tsi. The southern group was composed of Beranang, Pahang, Trengganau and Kelantan. Between these two groups lay Kaṭāha or Kaḍāram and Lengkasuka which probably occupied both the eastern and the western coasts of the Peninsula.
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These principalities did not enjoy equal power or importance. Kaṭāha or Kaḍāra was no doubt the chief of these, as testified to by the Cola records which generally refer to the Śailendra emperor as king of Kaṭāha or Kaḍāra. Rājendra Cola does not refer to any state of the southern group, and even omits the last two of the northern. Chau Ju-kua, too, gives a detailed notice only of Tāmraliṅga, Kaḍāram, Lengkasuka, and Beranang.
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Although a vassal state of the Śailendras, Tāmraliṅga sent an embassy to China in 1001 A. D.¹
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¹ Études Asiatique, Vol. II, pp. 108-110.
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The decline of the empire of San-fo-tsi during the latter half of the thirteenth century A. D. brought about a great change in the political condition of the Malay Peninsula. Java, the successful rival, now regarded the empire of his enemy as her legitimate prey. Thus Kṛtanagara conquered Pahang, one of the vassal states of San-fo-tsi. The tragic end of Kṛtanagara did not allow him to carry on this direct process of conquest any further. But Malayu, the vassal state of Java, which was planted by Kṛtanagara as the out-post of Javanese authority in the heart of Sumatra, continued the task and conquered many of the vassal states in Malay Peninsula. About the same time the king of Siam entered the stage and by 1292 A. D. had established his authority as far as Ligor. The lost Peninsular empire of San-fo-tsi thus proved a bone of contention between Siam and Malayu, as we have already noticed above (Bk. IV, ch. I). According to the ‘Koṭ. Monthīerabān (Kaṭa Maṇḍira-pāla) or Palatine Law of Siam, enacted in A. D. 1360, Ujong Tānah (Johor), Malaka, Malayu, and Worawārī were vassal states of Siam.²
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² Gerini—Researches, pp. 531-2.
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But with the growth of the empire of Majapahit Java pursued again the policy of re-conquering the Malay Peninsula. By 1365 A. D. nearly the whole of it was included within the empire of Java, as would appear from the detailed list of states given in the Nāgara-Kṛtāgama. (Bk. III, ch. VI).
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With the downfall of the Majapahit empire at the beginning of the fifteenth century A. D., Siam must have again tried to consolidate its authority in Malay Peninsula. But now the Malay states tried to shake off the yoke of both Java and Siam. We have already seen above, in connection with the history of Java, that China took advantage of the downfall of the Majapahit empire to pose as the protector of its vassal states, and thereby play an imperial rôle in the affairs of the Malay Peninsula and Malay Archipelago. The Peninsular states thus naturally turned towards China, specially as the authority of China was more nominal than that of either Java or Siam. This is clearly indicated by the fact that various states like Pahang, Kelantan, and Malacca now send tributes to China.
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The History of the Ming Dynasty gives us the following information about Pahang, the old court-name for which was Indrapura, evidently the name given by the old Indian settlers.¹
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¹ J. Str. Br. R. A. S., No. 81, p. 30.
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‘Pahang is situated to the west of Siam. In the year 1378 the king Maharaja Tadjau sent envoys with a letter, written on a golden leaf, and bringing as tribute six foreign slaves and products of the country. They were received according to the established rules.
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‘In the year 1411 the king Pa-la-mi-so-la-ta-lo-si-ni ( Parameśvara Darśana ? ) sent envoys carrying tribute. In 1412 Cheng Ho went as an envoy to their country, and in the year 1414 they sent tribute again. (The name of the envoy sent in 1411 is rendered by Schlegel as Somaka Mantri).
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‘In the year 1416 they sent tribute and Cheng Ho was again ordered to go there.’²
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² Groeneveldt—Notes, p. 137. Schlegel-T'oung Pao, Ser. I, Vol. X, pp. 41ff.
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Later, Pahang became a vassal of Siam, and its ruler Maharaja Deva Sura was defeated and captured by Sultan Mansur Shah of Malacca, and thus ended the Hindu royal line of Pahang.³
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³ Winstedt-History of Malaya, p. 47.
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As regards Kelantan we read in the same Chinese History : “In the year 1411 the king Maharaja K’u-ma-r sent envoys to bring tribute, and in 1412 Cheng Ho got orders to bring him an imperial letter praising his conduct and to present him with different kinds of silk.”¹
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¹ Groeneveldt—Notes, p. 139.