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Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champa; Vol. II: Suvarnadvipa) v2.c20.s7: Appendix: Religious Literature in Java

Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champā; Vol. II: Suvarṇadvīpa) v2.c20.s7

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Appendix: Religious Literature in Java

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In order to properly understand the religion of a country it is necessary to have an idea of the texts on which it was based, and by which it was inspired, guided, and controlled. The religious texts in Java, from the very nature of the case, must have consisted primarily of (i) Sanskrit texts, imported from India or composed in the island, (ii) the Old-Javanese translations or adaptations of such texts, and (iii) independent Old-Javanese works.

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We have a few texts belonging to each class and have already referred to some of them in course of the above discussion. We give below a short account of the more important ones among the rest. It is to be understood, however, that some books of class iii may really belong to class ii, for they may be really translations of some Sanskrit texts, yet untraced, and not independent works as they are now supposed to be.

I. Sanskrit Texts

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It is quite clear from references in literature and inscriptions that Sanskrit literature was highly cultivated in Java and Bali, and that a very large number of Sanskrit texts, mostly imported from India, existed in these islands. With the loss of contact with India and the gradual passing away of knowledge of Sanskrit, these texts have almost entirely disappeared, and only a very small number of short doctrinal texts have survived on account of religious exigencies. It is curious to note that although even the priests of Bali do not understand a word of Sanskrit, and have not even heard the name of India, they still recite the Sanskrit *mantras* in their daily rituals and ceremonies. The few Sanskrit texts that we find to-day in Bali no doubt owe their existence to this fact alone, and cannot give us any adequate idea of the vast Sanskrit literature that must once have formed favourite subject of study among the people. We give below a short account of these texts on the authority of S. Lévi who has recently published them¹.

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¹ Lévi—Texts.

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I. Vedas. Frequent reference is made in the Javanese records to the four Vedas, and proficiency therein was greatly prized. High hopes were therefore raised when Friederich announced the existence of fragments of all the four Vedas in Bali. A controversy has been going on since then regarding the genuineness of these Vedas. The matter may now be said to be set at rest by the researches of S. Lévi. He has shown that the text known as ‘Caturveda’ in Bali is no other than the Nārāyaṇātharvaśirṣopaniṣad. “What the pedaṇḍas mean when speaking of the four Vedas is only the four sections of the Upaniṣad respectively known as the ‘heads’ (Śiras) of the Ṛg, Yajus, Sāma, and Atharva Veda².” The text of this Upaniṣad, as current in Bali, has been published by S. Lévi along with the Indian original³.

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² Ibid, p. XV.

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³ Ibid, pp. 3-6.

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II. The second text noted by S. Lévi is known as Veda-parikrama-sāra-saṃhitā-kiraṇa⁴. It gives an account of the daily worship, which we have described above. It contains the Sanskrit mantras, with directions for the occasion of, and the appropriate rituals and ceremonies accompanying their use. Specimens of these mantras have been quoted on pp. 107 ff. above.

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⁴ Ibid, pp. XVIII-XXI, 7-32.

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III. The Stotras (or Stavas) form the next important texts⁵. These are ‘regular parts of the ritual’ and are addressed not only to principal deities, Śiva, Viṣṇu, Buddha, Sūrya, Vāyu, Varuṇa, and Yama, but also to various minor Brāhmanical and Buddhist gods such as Umā, Gaṅgā, Gaṇapati, Soma, Pṛthvī (Earth), Rabi, Vāsuki, Śrī and Sarasvatī. There are also Stotras for the Pitṛs (manes), the syllable oṃ etc.

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⁵ Ibid, pp. XXI-XXIX, 35-70.

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The original Sanskrit texts of some of these have been traced, and others may be found in course of time. The possibility of some being composed in Java or Bali cannot be altogether excluded. Some of these stotras are very beautiful, and, as Lévi remarks, ‘deserve to be classic, even in India.’

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IV. Buddhaveda.¹ This is the Buddhist counterpart of the Brāhmanical Veda and contains a full account of the daily worship of the Buddhist priest. It includes many pieces well-known in Nepal and elsewhere. According to Lévi “the verses and mantras are clearly derived from some Tantra, probably Śaiva Tantra.”

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¹ Ibid, pp. XXIX-XXXI, 73-84.

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V. In addition to the above, there are scattered verses of moral or semi-religious purport as well as mantras for the consecration of sword, ships, houses, etc. There is, for example, the verse “Oṁ Ahalyā Draupadī Sītā Dārā [ for Tārā ] Mandodharī tata pañcakanyā smare nityam,” a slightly corrupted form of the well-known Sanskrit verse which is known in every Hindu household in India.² The following poem, known as Daśaśīla³, which admirably sums up the Hindu ideal of life, may form an apt conclusion of this section.

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² Cat. I, Vol. II, pp. 321-384.

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³ Lévi-Texts, p. 109.

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अहिंसां चमा सत्यमहिंसा दम आर्जवम् ।
प्रीतिः प्रसादो माधुर्यं मार्दवं च यमा दश ॥

II. Old-Javanese with Sanskrit original

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1. Bhuvana-Kośa.⁴ It appears to be an Old-Javanese translation of a Sanskrit work, the Sanskrit verses being followed by translation in Old-Javanese prose. It is called Jñāna-Siddhānta-Śāstram and is described as Parama-rahasya or an esoteric text.

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⁴ Goris, pp. 75, 94-98 ; Cat. I. Vol. II. p. 261.

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The framework of the text is formed by the dialogue between Śiva and Muni Bhārgava about ‘Nirvāṇa’ or final emancipation. It deals with cosmogony and metaphysics, betraying clear influences of the Purāṇas, specially Agni-purāṇa, in the case of the former, and Vedānta philosophy in the case of the latter. It also deals with the twelve tattvas, after the Sāṃkhya and the Yoga philosophy of India, and a great part of it is devoted to Tāntrik mysticism.

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The ultimate reality is called Parama Brahma, Mahāsūkṣma, and Śānta-parama-nirmala. The Mahāyogī, or great ascetic, burns his sins by his asceticism as fire burns a tree, and then attains nirvāṇa by the realisation that his soul is identical with Śiva. This is undoubtedly a Vedāntic doctrine.

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2. Bhuvana-Saṃkṣepa¹—It is an Old-Javanese translation of a Sanskrit work with a number of the original Sanskrit ślokas interspersed in the text.

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¹ Goris, pp. 94-98 ; Cat. I. Vol. II, p. 261-3.

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It lays down the Paramatattva or the great mystery of Śūnyavāda i.e. the great void. Mokṣa or final emancipation consists in a negation of all things and ideas. Thus we read:—

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न भूर्मिर्न जलम् व्यापिः न तेजो न च मारुतः।
न सूर्यचन्द्र सर्वेपि नाकाशं नान्तरं भवेत्॥
न बुद्धिः न मनंकारः न विष्णु न ब्रह्म ईश्वरं।
न निष्टे न मध्योत्तमः न मिव दैवता पुनः॥

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Then follows the Bhuvana-Saṃkṣepa proper, in the form of instructions given by Śiva to Umā and Kumāra. The ultimate reality is described as Niṣkala from which originated mātra, nādānta, nāda, vindu, candra, viśra, tryakṣara, Brahma etc. Then follows an account of the Sapta-dvīpa (seven continents), Sapta-parvala (seven mountain ranges), Sapta Samudra (seven seas), and Saptatīrtha (seven sacred rivers).

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We are next told that the fundamental elements of the body correspond to the pañca-mahā-bhūta (flesh=earth, blood=water etc.). Then the five prāṇas (prāṇa, apāna, samāna, udāna, vyāna) are located in different parts of the body. Then the three tattvas (ahaṃkāra, mana and buddhi) are identified with Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva, and the three guṇas (sattva, rajas and tama) with three aspects of Śiva viz: Mahādeva, Rudra and Śaṃkara.

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3. Tattva Saṅ Hyang Mahājñāna¹—It is a philosophical dissertation between Bhaṭāra Guru (Śiva) and Kumāra, written in Sanskrit verses followed by Old-Javanese translation and commentary. One of its verses runs as follows:—

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¹ Goris, pp. 98-101 ; Cat. 1. Vol. II, pp. 272-3.

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आपुस देवी दिजातीनां ऋषीनां दिवि देवतः।
शिलाकान्तश्च लोकानां मुनीनां आत्म देवतः॥

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The Old-Javanese commentary says that it describes the adhikāra (proper sphere of the religious activity) of the different groups. The Brāhmaṇas perform rituals and ceremony in the holy water, the ṛṣis look to the gods of heaven, and the munis or ascetics look to the ātmā or realisation of the soul. The common people, on the other hand, believes in stone and streams and in images and temples.

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4. Bṛhaspati-tattva²—It is an Old-Javanese work interspersed with Sanskrit ślokas. It enumerates the different religious sects and then discusses Karma-Vaśana (actions in this life and their consequences hereafter), and refers to the famous parable of the blind men and the elephant to indicate the incomplete nature of the different conceptions about God. It then refers to a number of philosophical doctrines viz: the tattvas (pradhāna, triguṇa, buddhi, ahaṃkāra, indriya, pañca-mahābhūta); aṣṭeśvarya (aṇimā etc. or dharma, jñāna, etc.); the tripramāṇa (pratyakṣa, anumāna, and āgama);

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² Goris, pp. 101-107.

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the aṣṭasiddhi (dāna, adhyayana, śabda, tarka, suhṛdam with the three adhyātmika siddhi viz., adhyātmika, ādidevika, and ādibhotika duḥkha); the pañca-tanmātra, the pañca-mahā-bhūta, the ṣaḍrasa etc., etc.

III. Independent Old-Javanese works

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5. Sapta-bhuvana¹—This book gives a mystic interpretation of a number of categories containing seven elements, e.g., the sapta-giri (seven mountains) in the east, the saptāgni (seven fires) in the south, the saptaoṃkāra (a, u, m, oṃ, nāda, vindu and ardhacandra) in the west, the Sapta Veda (seven Vedas—details not given) in the north, the saptaloka (seven heavens) above, and sapta-pātāla (seven hells) below. It identifies the navagraha (nine planets), the sapta-dvīpa, and sapta-samudra, with the different parts or elements of human body, the eight mountain-ranges with the tattvas, etc.

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¹ Goris, pp. 108-115 ; Cat. 1, Vol. II, p. 275.

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6. Ṛṣiśāsana². It begins with a verse about Manu, the first king, who gave Śivaśāsana to the Śaivas. It then refers to the four kinds of Śāsana, viz: (1) Dharmaśāsana; (2) Rājaśāsana for kings e.g. Sara-samuccaya, Manuhagamanava; (3) Devaśāsana for religious sects; and (4) Ṛṣiśāsana for Yogīśvaras. It then deals in detail with the Yogīśvaras specially dwelling upon their rights over the freehold property enjoyed by them.

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² Tantu, pp. 299-300.

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7. Devaśāsana³. It also deals with the position of the Yogīśvara or Devaguru, the head of a Dharma or maṇḍala. He enjoyed large power and privileges and was under the patronage of the king, and often related to him. The Devagurus were the same as Bhujanggas or the spiritual leaders referred to in Nag. Kr.

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³ Tantu, pp. 289-291.

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8. Rājpatiguṇḍala¹, attributed to king Kṛtanagara, resembles Devaśāsana in its contents and deals with Yogīśvaras and Bikus (both male and female) and the different sects.

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¹ Tantu, pp. 291-294.

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9. Śivaśāsana². It deals in detail with the privileges of spiritual leaders, specially those in respect of the sovereign.

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² Tantu, pp. 300-302.

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10. Vratīśāsana³. It deals in detail with the rules and regulations to be observed by a religious disciple. His food, dress, rules of purity, moral conduct, religious rituals, etc. all come within the purview of this work, and follow on the whole the Indian ideal.

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³ Tantu, pp. 295-299.

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11. Śilakrama⁴. It deals in detail with the duties of a Śiṣya (disciple) towards his guru (preceptor).

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⁴ Tantu, pp. 302-3.

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12. Wit ing Tapabrata⁵, describes the different kinds of asceticism.

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⁵ Cat. 1, Vol. II, pp. 284-5.

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13-14. Nitibrata and Pabratan⁶ deal with different kinds of Bratas or religious vows and ceremonies.

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⁶ Cat. 1, Vol. II, pp. 266-269.

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15. Pratasti Bhuvana⁷. It begins with a description of the four Yugas—Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara, and Kali—giving names of the prominent kings, sacred books, and a general description of the people in each. Among the kings of Kaliyuga it mentions several names which may be easily identified with well-known kings of Java. The Linggapurāṇa is placed in Dvāpara, while Kuṭamanava and Samūrcaya, together with Manūḥ śāsana and Ṛṣi-śāsana are mentioned in respect of Kaliyuga. Origin and privileges of maṇḍalas, the high position of Śiva-maṇḍala and the duties and privileges of Biku are described in detail.

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⁷ Tantu, pp. 294-295.

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16. Kuñjarakarṇa¹ is a Mahāyānist work in which the philosophy and principles of that sect are expounded in the shape of a story. Yakṣa Kuñjarakarṇa receives religious instructions from Dhyānī-Buddha Vairocana, and, at his command, goes to the hell or abode of Yama, not only to witness the miseries entailed by sin, but also to take lessons from Yama. On his return Vairocana again taught him religious doctrines and philosophy.

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¹ Edited and translated by Kern ( V.G. Vol. X ). On the origin and spread of the Buddhist story all over the world, cf. T.B.G. Vol. 71 (1931), pp. 107-132.

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The book also contains the story of Pūrṇavijaya, a Vidyādhara and a friend of Kuñjarakarṇa. The latter learned, while in hell, that Pūrṇavijaya was destined to suffer great miseries in hell on account of his many sins. On his advice Pūrṇavijaya, too, became a disciple of Vairocana, and got religious instructions from him. Accordingly when he went to hell and was going to be thrown into a red-hot pan on fire, the firepit disappeared and a Kalpataru appeared in its place. He was then set free and came back to the world. Then the two friends Kuñjarakarṇa and Pūrṇavijaya went to Mahāmeru and practised hard austerities for twelve years. As a result of this they became Siddhas and went to heaven.

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The text lays stress on the immortality of the soul, the transmigration, the effect of karma or action upon the next birth, and the penance and austerities as a mode of self-purification. The Mahāyāna doctrine pervades the entire work.

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Kern, who translated the text, refers it to the twelfth century A.D., but Juynboll places it two centuries later.²

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² B.K.I. Vol. 72, pp. 401, ff.

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17. The superiority of Buddhism is the subject-matter of another Old-Javanese work, Singha Langghyāla³ which belongs to the same period as Kuñjarakarṇa. It describes how Cāya-puruṣa, the Śaiva king of Śvetanadipura, undertook an expedition against Kāmarūpiṇī the Buddhist queen of Singha Langghyāla, but failed. His brother Lakṣmīkiraṇa, a Vaiṣṇava, then made a similar attempt, but fared no better. Rati and the Vidyādharis came to the help of the Buddhist queen against the joint forces of the two brothers. At last Śiva intervened. The text seems to be an allegorical representation of the rivalry between the three religious sects and the innate supremacy of the Buddhists.

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³ Cat. 1, Vol. II, pp. 169-70.

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18. Putrupasaji.¹ It deals with worship of different gods and describes the benefit accruing from the eating of all kinds of animals—fish, birds, fourfooted animals, insects etc. It also gives a list of animals that men should not eat and also a list of mountains which should be visited by men desirous of going to heaven.

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¹ Cat. I, Vol. II, pp. 270-271.

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19. Raṇayajña.² It describes the different hells to which men go after death according as they are killed by different weapons. The battlefield is compared to a sacrifice (hence the name of the book), the body and the blood etc. corresponding to the fire-wood, oil, etc.

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² Cat. I, Vol. II, pp. 271-272.

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the Lacedaemonians, who had been waiting for the signal, now attacked the city. The Plataeans, seeing the enemy already inside and their own men falling, and knowing nothing of the plot, were seized with panic and, thinking that the Thebans were far more numerous than they really were, surrendered at discretion. But when they discovered that the Thebans were few, they took heart and, resolving to attack them, closed the gates and fell upon them.

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The Thebans, finding themselves in a trap, began to defend themselves. Twice or thrice they repelled the attacks of the Plataeans, but when the women and slaves began to shout and throw tiles and stones from the houses, and a heavy rain began to fall, the Thebans, confused and blinded, broke and fled through the city. Most of them, not knowing the way in the darkness and rain, fell into the drains or were killed by the Plataeans, who knew the streets. The gate through which they had entered had been shut by a Plataean who had found a javelin-head and used it as a bolt, so that there was no way out. Pursued through the city, some climbed the wall and jumped down, most of them perishing; others reached the gate and, finding it shut, were cut down by the women and slaves. A small party, seeing a large building with an open door, rushed in, thinking it was a gate, and were captured.

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Meanwhile, the main body of the Thebans, who were to have arrived at daybreak to support the first party, had been delayed by the rain and the swollen river Asopus. When they heard of the disaster, they hurried to the city, intending to seize any Plataeans who might be outside the walls. The Plataeans, suspecting their intention, sent a herald to them, warning them not to harm the prisoners they had taken, and threatening to kill them if they did not withdraw from their territory. The Thebans, upon this, retired.

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The Plataeans, having thus cleared the city, collected their dead and the prisoners. The prisoners, numbering about one hundred and eighty, were executed the next day, despite a message from the Thebans claiming that they had surrendered on terms. The Plataeans denied this, asserting that they had promised to spare them only if they did not commit further acts of violence.

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Thus ended the attempt of the Thebans upon Plataea, an event which was the immediate cause of the war between Athens and the Peloponnesians. The Plataeans, having secured their city, sent a messenger to Athens with the news, and the Athenians, fearing for the safety of the Plataeans, sent a garrison to their aid and removed the women and children to Athens.

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