Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champa; Vol. II: Suvarnadvipa) v2.c21.s2: Chapter II. Sculpture of Central Java

Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champā; Vol. II: Suvarṇadvīpa) v2.c21.s2

Language: English

v2.c21.s2.t1 § 1. Dieng — 17 parts
v2.c21.s2.t2 § 2. Barabudur — 35 parts
v2.c21.s2.t3 § 3. Lara-Jongrang — 24 parts
v2.c21.s2.t4 § 4. Other localities — 14 parts

Chapter II. Sculpture of Central Java

§ 1. Dieng

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The Javanese sculpture, like Javanese architecture, presents itself to us in a mature stage, when the artist had mastered the technique and long passed the stage of clumsy primitive efforts.¹ This is, no doubt, due, to a great extent, to the fact that Indian colonists brought with them skilled artists and mature traditions of art.

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¹ References given in connection with architecture also include sculpture. Only additional references will be given in this section.

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Following the plan adopted in the case of architecture, we may begin with the sculptures of Dieng². These may be studied under three heads : (1) Decorative or ornamental sculpture ; (2) Relief-figures ; and (3) Detached images.

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² For illustrations cf. Cohn-Ind., Pll. 157-160.

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1. The decorative sculptures offer comparatively few motifs such as garland, lotus-petals, foliage and flame. As already noted, in connection with the temples, they show a simplicity of design and boldness of execution, and on the whole fit in well with the general architectural plan. A sense of dignity and restraint pervades them and indicates an intellectual refinement.

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2. The relief-figures include the Kāla-Makara and the human busts within the niches in the roof of Caṇḍi Bima. These latter (Pl. XII. Fig. 2) show a high degree of excellence and form the high-water mark of Indo-Javanese sculpture of the Dieng period.

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Fergusson³ regarded these busts as those of Buddha, and Havell⁴ looked upon them as representations of Bhīma, the Pāṇḍava hero. That both these views are mistaken has been ably demonstrated by Vogel¹. We should rather regard them as parts of a decorative device, without any iconographical significance.

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³ History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (1910), Vol. II, p. 431.

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⁴ Indian Sculpture and Painting, pp. 142-3, Pl, XLI.

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¹ J.R.A.S., 1917, pp. 371 ff.

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Havell has waxed eloquent over the artistic merit of these sculptures. "There is" says he "the greatness of line, splendid generalization and profound abstraction of the best Egyptian sculpture, and all the refinement of Greek art".² Proceeding on the assumption that the busts represent those of Bhīma, Havell shows how ably the artist has represented the "born fighter and leader of men, with a depth of penetration which belongs only to the grandest portraiture³".

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² Op. cit, pp. 142-3.

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³ Ibid.

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Few people would perhaps join in the rapturous outburst of Havell. But nobody could deny that the execution of these images shows a high degree of technical skill and artistic conception. The artist excels in power of expression, and his creations are forceful and dignified. He has produced quite a large variety of types of what may be regarded as a transition between portraiture and ideal divine figures. There is no lack of frank naturalism, but there is at the same time a conscious attempt to idealise and generalise. The type is not purely Indian, but the influence of Indian artistic tradition is obvious. The process of Indianisation, either in conception or in execution, is not so complete as in the sculptures of Prambanan and Barabuḍur. But the artist has fully imbibed the best traditions of Indian art and mastered its technique.

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The bust illustrated in Pl. XII., Fig 1. is now found at Bagelen, but originally belonged to Dieng Plateau. It is a divine figure, perhaps of Śiva, and exhibits a greater process of Indianisation. It has a calm serene expression and belongs to the best type of Central-Javanese art. It may be regarded as the finest work of the Indo-Javanese art, found at Dieng Plateau.

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To the same class belongs the image of Durgā¹, found in the same locality. Although inferior to the preceding one in artistic merit, it exhibits an advanced technique and highly developed conception of art. The prostrate buffalo and the sad dejected face of the demon offer a striking contrast to the triumphant smile of the goddess. The representation of the demon just issuing out of the buffalo is also well conceived. It may be noted in passing that the goddess holds in her hands the attributes of Viṣṇu viz. conchshell, discus, lotus etc.

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¹ Cohn-Ind., Pl. 159.

§ 2. Barabudur

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² The two big volumes of Plates (cf. p. 193, f. n. 1) give the best and most comprehensive illustrations of the sculptures of Barabudur. Readers having no access to them might consult, with advantage, Verneuil—Java, Pll. III-LXV and Cohn-Ind., Pll 147-156. Some sculptures of Barabudur, along with a few from Lara Jongrang and Singhasari, were removed to Bangkok. For an account of these cf. B.K.I., Vol. 73 (285-310), 79 (491-518), 83 (503-13).

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The Javanese sculpture may be studied at its best in the Barabudur and the associated temples of Mendut and Pavon. Here we may easily distinguish three different classes of sculpture viz. (1) Decorative Relief; (2) Detached images; (3) Narrative relief.

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1. Purely ornamental designs, though they are mostly overshadowed by the two other elements, constitute a striking feature of the sculptures of Barabudur. A few good specimens are to be seen in the decoration of the gateways and of the posts or pilasters separating the narrative reliefs. A sense of elegance and refinement pervades them all, and we are reminded of the decorative arts of the Gupta period. The rosette and geometrical patterns on the gateways and the intricate floral scroll-work on the posts (dividing the reliefs), sometimes involving the most complex spirals, bear striking resemblance to those found on Dhāmekh Stūpa. The decorated pilasters of Barabuḍur also resemble those of the Gupta period. The floral scrolls, with or without birds and animals, more specially various forms of lotus, are of an exceedingly refined style.

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Some of the most favourite decorative motives, illustrated in Pl. XVI, XVIII and XIX, are (a) a series of semicircular garlands alternating with hanging garlands; (b) floral spirals; (c) floral scroll with animals and birds; (d) conventional vase with flowers.

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Some of the panels of Barabuḍur, as already observed in course of the description of the monument, have purely decorative reliefs.

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2. The detached images of Buddha in Barabuḍur (Pl. XIII), and of Bodhisatvas in Mendut (Pl. XIV) may be regarded as the finest products of Indo-Javanese sculpture. Fine modelling, as far as it is compatible with absence of muscular details, refined elegance of features, tasteful pose, close-fitting smooth robe and a divine spiritual expression of face are the chief characteristics of these figures. The art must have, therefore, been ultimately derived from the classical art of the Gupta period in India. This point, though recognised by some, has not yet been very forcefully brought out, but the more one studies the images of the Barabuḍur group the more is one impressed with the essential characteristics of the Gupta age which they display. The following observations on the Gupta images by a distinguished art critic may be applied, without any qualification, to the Indo-Javanese images of this period.

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"In the Gupta period the image has taken its place in architecture; becoming necessary, it loses its importance, and enters into the general decorative scheme, and in this integration acquires delicacy and repose. At the same time technique is perfected, and used as a language without conscious effort, it becomes the medium of conscious and explicit statement of spiritual conceptions. With a new beauty of definition it establishes the classical phase of Indian art, at once serene and energetic, spiritual and voluptuous.”¹ “Gupta sculpture, though less ponderous than the ancient types, is still distinguished by its volume; its energy proceeds from within the form, and is static rather than kinetic.”²

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¹ Coomaraswamy, p. 71.

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² Ibid, p. 72.

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Pl. XIII illustrates one of the long series of very pleasing and remarkable Buddha figures that adorn the niches and the small perforated stūpas of Barabuḍur. It has smooth, round, but not attenuated, limbs, and the presence of the robe is indicated by the ends above the wrist. The calm divine expression of the face is brought out in an easy graceful manner, and the whole body seems permeated with a radiant spiritual energy issuing from within. It may be compared with the seated Buddha image from Sāranāth.

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3. Narrative reliefs of Barabuḍur

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It is impossible to deal adequately with the extensive series of narrative reliefs in Barabuḍur in the short compass of this work. The subject-matter of these reliefs, so far as they have been identified, has been briefly explained in connection with the architectural description of the monument. In view of the very large number of reliefs it is not possible to give even a general idea of the different types of artistic work by means of copious illustrations and adequate explanation. All that can be attempted here is a sort of introduction to these wonderful series of sculptured reliefs by means of a few examples selected mainly from the life-story of Gautama Buddha represented by 120 panels on the top of the chief wall of the first gallery. As noted above, the relief-scenes follow very closely the text of Lalita Vistara and may be easily identified.

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Pl. XV, Fig. 1 illustrates the descent of the Bodhisatva to earth. The pavilion in the centre on which he sits is being carried down by the gods who hold it on either side. On both sides are escorting gods and *apsaras* with umbrellas, flags, flowers, fly-whisks, and incense-burners. The cloud beneath the pavilion, the hovering attitude of the gods and the backward waving of the flags and fly-whisks are the artistic devices employed to indicate the swift motion through the air.

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Pl. XV, Fig. 2 illustrates the selection of Gopā as wife by the Bodhisatva out of a number of Śākya maidens. The servants are seated on the right and the rejected maidens under a pavilion on the left. In the centre Gopā sits kneeling before the Bodhisattva. The scene is thus described in Lalitavistara :

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"All the young maidens gathered in the Assembly Hall. One after another they came to the prince and received valuable ornaments, till these were all exhausted. Lastly came Gopā and said : "Prince, what have I done that you despise me ?" The prince replied : "I despise thee not, but thou comest last of all". So saying he took the ring from his finger and gave it to her."

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Pl. XVI, Fig. 1 illustrates the famous scene in which the Prince riding out on a chariot meets a sick person. Mark the very realistic picture of the sick and the richly ornamented borders on the three sides.

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Pl. XVI, Fig. 2 illustrates another famous scene. After the amusements and festivities prince Gautama finds himself in the apartment where the dancing girls were sleeping—"some with their garments torn away, and others with naked limbs, and mouths awry and squinting eyes......". While gazing at these indecorous women he heard the divine voice : "How canst thou find pleasure herein ? Thou dwellest in the midst of a graveyard". His mind is filled with loathing and he decides upon an ascetic life.

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The scene is portrayed with vivid reality, but it is to be noted that there is no obscenity or vulgarity into which an artist describing a scene like this might easily have degenerated, Pl. XVII, Fig. 1 illustrates the visit of king Bimbisāra to Bodhisatva. On the left is a rocky landscape with trees, animals, and birds. The Bodhisatva is in a cave. King Bimbisāra with one attendant is seated on a rock while his other attendants sit under the trees.

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Pl. XVII, Fig. 2 represents Buddha seated with his five ascetic disciples on the Gayā mountain. Mark the rocky landscape with the Nairanjanā river on the right.

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Pl. XVIII, Fig. 1 represents Buddha and the gods who request him to take food. Apart from the landscape and the ornamental borders, the individual figures of the gods deserve special notice.

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Pl. XVIII, Fig. 2 is a representation of a famous episode in Lalitavistara which may be summed up as follows.

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‘The Bodhisatva picked up a rag from graveyard and wanted to wash it. Thereupon the gods made to appear first a pond and also a stone on which to wash it. Śakra, the chief of the gods, offered to wash it himself, but the Bodhisatva refused, and after himself washing it got into the pond. Māra caused the sides of the tank to rise high so that the Bodhisatva, weak and exhausted as he was, could not come out. He thereupon requested the goddess of a tree standing near by to bend its branch and with its help came out of the pond.’

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The relief shows a beautiful lotus pond with birds. The tree-goddess is kneeling on the left. Śakra is indicated by his chief attendant’s headdress, which has the shape of the trunk of an elephant, and the goad in his hand. The naturalistic representation of the lotus bud and leaves is noteworthy.

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Pl. XIX, Fig. 1 represents an episode in the story of Sudhanakumāra in Divyāvadāna. The prince Sudhanakumāra, after wandering long in search of his beloved consort Manoharā, arrives at the city where she lives. He sits near a tank and sees a number of girls fetching water. Learning that the water was meant for the bath of his beloved, he calls one of the maids aside and throws his ring into her jug, by which his presence is at last indicated to Manoharā.

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The relief shows a lotus pond in the centre with a swan. Altogether there are nine maids with water-jugs. Some of them have already filled their jugs and are going back to the palace depicted on the left. One is shown in the act of filling the jug and others are waiting their turn. To the right the prince sits on a raised seat under a tree, evidently narrating something which a maid in front of him is listening to with rapt attention. The jug is placed on the ground before her. Presumably the prince throws the ring into the jug. According to the text the prince did it without being seen. This is possible in the relief only on the presumption that the maid was too engrossed with the recital to notice the ring being thrown in.

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The relief is a fine piece of sculpture. The division of the charming and graceful maidens into two groups on two sides of the pond, the delicate carving of the lotus leaves, buds and the small plants on the edge of the pond, the varying and graceful poses of the maidens, and the prince,—all testify to a high degree of artistic skill. The relief recalls the very familiar and poetic image of village maidens gathered round a pond in the dusk, and this lovely scene serves as a beautiful contrast to the love-sick forlorn prince in the background. The composition must be regarded as a beautiful poetic conception nicely executed, and, taken as a whole, may be regarded as one of the finest reliefs in Barabuḍur.

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The reliefs of Barabuḍur are specially designed for illustrating some definite texts. Wherever we have been able to discover this text we find the sculptor making a faithful reproduction of it as far as his limited space permits. In reproducing the story he seldom tries to pick up the crucial event or episode as of special importance, nor does he emphasise in any way the leading movement or action in a theme, relegating accessory details into a subordinate position. But he deals with the whole story in a uniform manner, treating the essential point very much in the same way as its minor detail. In other words, the Barabuḍur reliefs are descriptive and not dramatic. The sculptor avoids excitement or sensationalism of any kind and is content in narrating the story in a colourless form.

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In the composition of reliefs we therefore almost always find quite a large number of figures, many of whom play only a very subordinate rôle, and whose absence would very often not only not matter in the least, but would rather help to direct our attention to the main actors and main incidents in the story. There are, of course, exceptions to the rule, but there is no doubt about the general tendency.

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In spite of these obvious defects the reliefs have several characteristic merits. In the first place the artist always displays a fine sense of symmetry, harmony and rhythm in grouping his figures. They are skilfully arranged in small groups balancing each other, while the different poses, varying attitudes, and distinct appearances and dresses of figures in the same group serve to remove the aspect of monotony and dullness which would otherwise be inevitable in a scene depicting quite a large number of persons. For example, of the gods and apsaras in Pl. XV, Fig. 1, and the women in Pl. XVI, Fig. 2, no two figures have the same attitude or exactly the same dress and appearance.

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The artist has further freely made use of trees, plants, animals, and birds to break the dull monotony of his scene. True to Indian traditions, he shows a keen appreciation of the beauties of nature, and delights to depict human beings in surroundings of natural beauty, as far, of course, as his texts would permit. The landscape, specially trees, rocks and rivers, is conventional but finely executed, and the lotus ponds in Pl. XVIII, Fig. 2, and Pl. XIX, Fig. 1 are lovely examples of naturalistic designs. The figures of the trees, birds and animals, and sometimes of pavilions and palaces, and the skilful way in which they are added to a scene to enrich and enliven it, are worthy of the highest praise.

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The artist has attained a high degree of success in the representation of human figures. Considering the large area filled by thousands of them, we could hardly expect great beauty of form in individual figures. But if few of them may be regarded as of surpassing beauty, there are fewer still among the thousands of figures, which have fallen below a fairly high average standard, and this, by itself, calls forth our highest admiration and reflects the greatest credit upon the genius and resourcefulness of the artists of Barabuḍur.

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In designing the human figures the artist, true to Indian tradition, has aimed at reproducing a type rather than an individual. But he has been very successful in delineating and distinguishing these types. For example, the royal attendants (Pl. XVII, Fig. 1), ascetics (Pl. XVII, Fig. 2), and the gods, (Pl. XVIII, Fig. 1) are clearly marked types distinguished from one another. Yet no two figures of even the same type are exactly the replica of each other, and there are always some shades of difference in their features. Once our eyes are accustomed to a little heaviness and roundness of the figures, which are, no doubt, due to racial physiognomy, we find them possessed of a fair degree of grace and charm. As our eyes wander over the hundreds and thousands of figures, we note with admiration how each of them has been chiselled with great care and skill, so as to bring out the lovely form of the body. The scanty dress, both of the men and the women, made the task infinitely greater, as the artist had to pay attention to all the parts of the body. The figures are seldom made to stand or sit in an erect or rigid attitude, but infinite variety of poses and bends are introduced, giving the artist an opportunity to display his masterly technique and sense of rhythm by delineating them in fine graceful curved lines.

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The figures of women are almost always carved with a special care. The round bosom, full thigh and hip, slender waist and the pliant limbs endow many of them with an unspeakable grace and charm. Sometimes we meet with new types of novel beauty; for example the Kinnaris depicted in Pl. XIX, Fig. 1. The artist has deliberately created a new type to distinguish them from ordinary human beings. The tall slender forms, and the graceful poses of these figures, radiant with life and beauty, mark them as the creation of a master artist with striking ideals of originality of design.

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The artist has shown equal powers of carving deformed or ugly creatures. Although generally naturalistic he sometimes grows realistic, as for example in representing the sick man in Pl. XVI, Fig. 1 and some of the courtiers in Pl. XIX, Fig. 3.

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The artist has also succeeded well in delineating difficult movements of the body. The dancing scene in Pl. XIX, Fig. 2 is a fair specimen. The posture of the dancing girl in the centre and the position of the arms of the musicians with two parts of the cymbals (or similar instruments), just on the point of striking one another, are particularly noteworthy.

§ 3. Lara-Jongrang

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¹ For illustrations, cf. Cohn—Ind, Pll. 161-164 in addition to the works cited in f. n. 3, p. 212.

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The general disposition of the sculptures in Lara-Jongrang and their subject-matter have been referred to in course of the description of the temple. It is necessary here only to refer to their artistic excellence.

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A highly developed aesthetic sense is noticeable in all the sculptures, both decorative ornaments and relief figures. The Kāla-Makara ornament, on the top of the niches in the balustrade, is a pleasant contrast to the usually hideous and distorted monster's face that we meet with elsewhere. But even this was excelled by the beautiful conventional design of the same which we notice above the niches of the basement. Here the face is almost unrecognisable in the graceful curves and the beautiful complex of intertwining spiral, the whole producing a linear design of infinite beauty.

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The same aesthetic sense has transformed the tree-and-vase motive into a floral bouquet whose charm holds in awe of admiration the two Kinnaras seated on its sides. The Kinnara figures, half-bird, half-human, are very appropriate. To appreciate the beauty of the tree you must have the eyes and heart of a human being but to enjoy it perpetually you must have the wings of a bird. Taken as a whole, the decorative reliefs are very charming and graceful and show a variety of designs.

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A high degree of aesthetic sense also pervades the delineation of human figures. The best seems to be the triple figures in the niches on the outer side of the balustrade. Characterised alike by the elegance of forms and the harmonious grouping, they may be regarded as the best jewels in the ornamentation of the temple.

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The figures in the neighbouring panels are less elegant, but full of life and movements, bringing into relief the still beauty of the principal figures. In these attendant figures the artist has shown in a remarkable degree his power of delineating movements of all kinds and infusing life and vivacity in them. The man, for instance, who is playing on the mṛdanga ( a kind of drum ) is depicted as if his whole body is dancing with the tune. The skill with which different postures of the human body are faithfully drawn is also worthy of notice.

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All these peculiarities appear again in a still more remarkable degree in the famous series of reliefs representing scenes from the Rāmāyaṇa.¹ There are altogether forty-two panels depicting the story of the Rāmāyaṇa up to the arrival of Rāma and his monkey-troops to Laṅkā. It will be beyond our scope to describe all of them, but a few typical scenes may be discussed.

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¹ For a complete illustration and interpretation of reliefs, cf. Kats—Het Rāmāyaṇa, Plates 1-42. For interpretations by Stutterheim, cf. B.K.I. Vol. 84 (1928) pp. 126 ff. Stutterheim believes that the panels are arranged with reference to the course of the sun with whom Rāma is identified. Thus the pictures about the prosperity of Rāma are in the east (rise of the sun) and those of adversity in the west (sun-set) etc, Ibid pp. 118-132.

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1. The very first panel (Pl. XX, Fig. 1) represents *anantaśayana* of Viṣṇu. The god is seated on serpent *Śeṣa* and the sea below it is indicated by waving lines and aquatic animals such as fishes and crabs. Viṣṇu has four hands. The upper right arm holds the discus and the upper left, the conchshell. The object in the lower right hand is indistinct, while the empty lower left hand is stretched, with palm outside, in the act of greeting the five figures on his left. These represent the gods who have come to request him to be incarnated on earth for killing Rāvaṇa. The foremost of these figures, distinguished from the rest by his peaked beard and peculiar headdress, probably represents Brahmā. He presents an offering (arghya) to Viṣṇu.

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Viṣṇu is seated in a peculiar manner. His left leg is doubled up and two ends of a girdle that pass round his body are tied a little below the knee. This method of keeping the body at ease is also noticeable in the sculptures at Sāñchi, and Barabuḍur. To the right of Viṣṇu, Garuḍa is seated in a reverential attitude, holding with two hands a lotus with long stalk towards his master.

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The theme is delineated with admirable force and simplicity. There is a beautiful harmony in the whole composition, and the artist has shown his sense of symmetery and balance. As in the body of the temple, the decorative ornaments are kept in due subordination. The most remarkable thing is, however, the variety of features and expressions which we notice in the five divine figures. Each of these is graceful in his own way, endowed with different features and imbued with different expressions. Taken separately each would have constituted a charming figure by itself, and this is a rare thing in a composition of this kind. The continuation of the scene, in panel II (Pl. XX, Fig. 2) depicts king Daśaratha with his queen and sons, and probably the sage Viśvāmitra.

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2. The panels X, XI, XII, (Pl. XX, Figs. 3-4) delineate the tragic scene of the banishment of Rāma. To the left is a long scene depicting the coronation of Bharata with its attendant joyous ceremonies such as music and dancing. To the right, Rāma and Sītā are being driven in a chariot towards the forest.

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In the centre the old King Daśaratha and queen Kauśalyā are seated overwhelmed with grief, the king's head drooping over his left shoulder, and the queen closing her eyes with left hand. The sorrow of the royal couple is reflected in the dejected and somewhat startled faces of the two attendants sitting on the right. The placing of this scene between the other two at once brings into prominence the great tragedy of the whole.

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Apart from the masterly setting of the whole scene, the details are worthy of a great artist. The sorrow of the king and queen is shown in a simple but very effective manner. Both of them have their faces turned towards the right but not looking at the departing chariot, a sight too painful for them. The face of Rāma is sad, that of Lakṣmaṇa sadder still, but not so the face of Sītā, in whom the joy of her husband's company seems to outweigh all other considerations.

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Remarkable is also the attitude of Bharata and his queen. They look morose and sit apart, in strong contrast to the posture in which loving couples are usually represented. Compare, for example, that of Rāma and Sītā in panel XVI., and of Daśaratha and his queen in panels II and IX. Amid the joyous surroundings of their coronation Bharata and his queen alone are sad and unhappy.

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³ The panels XVII—XX. (Pl. XXI, Figs. 1-2) represent the episodes of Sūrpanakhā and Mārici. Beginning from the left, the first scene represents Rāma seated in his hut, while Sūrpanakhā, with her maid, kneels down before him, offering some presents. The forest is indicated by two trees, under one of which Sītā stands, at a distance, looking at the scene with a jealous eye.

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The next scene shows the same two figures—Sūrpaṇakhā and her attendant—before Lakṣmaṇa. His outstretched left hand with a pointed finger is a warning to them to retire, while an arrow (or a club or some other weapon) in his right hand completes the threat. Poor Sūrpaṇakhā, frightened and disappointed, bursts into tears. The difference in the attitude of the two brothers is worthy of note.

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The next scene represents Sītā seated in her hut, while Lakṣmaṇa, left to guard her, sits below her.

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Next we find Rāma in the thick forest just letting oft the arrow which has pierced the golden deer. Above the deer is portrayed the hideous figure of Rākṣasa Mārichi, uttering the fatal cry. The forest is indicated by trees, plants and shrubs, while the figure of Rāma in the act of throwing the arrow is faithfully drawn, his left hand holding the centre of the bow, with right hand stretched back behind his body. The running deer with his head turned back towards his pursuer is also admirably carved.

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4. Lastly we may refer to panel XXXIX, (Pl. XXI, Fig. 3) in which Hanumān, on his return from Laṅkā, narrates the story of Sītā to Rāma. The artist has very cleverly depicted the different effects of the story on the different persons present. Rāma is overpowered with emotions, but is evidently fully absorbed with the mental vision of Sītā which the narrator's story has conjured up before him. Lakṣmaṇa, too, is deeply moved, but less absorbed than Rāma. Sugrīva and the seated human figure behind him are visibly affected by the pathos of the story which they are listening to with rapt attention. The two monkeys on the extreme right pay no attention to the story and are making merriments, in strong contrast to the rest.

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If we compare the attitude of Rāma with that of Sītā in panel XXXVI, (pl. XXI, Fig. 4) when she hears the news of Rāma from the same Hanumān, we can easily mark the difference in the two characters. Sītā is visibly affected, her whole body leaning forward towards the speaker. But while her emotion is only too visible, Rāma presents, outwardly, a calm placid figure, with a slight twist of the left hand (in common with Sītā) as the only external indication of the deep emotion which is agitating his body and mind. Whereas Sītā is looking eagerly towards Hanumān, Rāma is turning away from him. In Sītā the emotional element reigns supreme, while it is subordinated in Rāma to a strong will-power and intellectual force.

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In conclusion we may refer to the detached images of the gods, specially those of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva in the temples. They are beautifully modelled, but the expression lacks the ideal abstraction which is the dominant keynote of Barabuḍur Buddha. The features, though somewhat stiff, are, however, characterised by an elegance and refinement of high order. The image of Mahādeva (Pl. XXII) will serve as an example.

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The above review makes it clear that the art of Lara-Jongrang is more naturalistic than that of Barabuḍur and is characterised by a greater feeling for movements and human passions. It is more informed by human life and activity, though not devoid of the graceful charm of idealism. It has brought the divinity of idealism to the earth below, but with less abstraction and more animation than is the case with Barabuḍur. It is dramatic and dynamic while the latter is passive and static. In short, Barabuḍur and Lara-Jongrang represent respectively the Classic and Romantic phases of Indo-Javanese art.

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From a strictly technical point of view, the figures of these reliefs perhaps suffer in comparison with the finished products of Barabuḍur. But the artist has shown a very high degree of skill in delineating not only human figures but also apes, aquatic animals, and plants.

§ 4. Other localities

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From the point of view of art in general and sculpture in particular, Dieng, Barabuḍur and Lara-Jongrang constitute three important landmarks in the gradual stages of its development. The period of interval that separates these three is not very long, and all of them were constructed, at the outside limits, between 750 and 950 A.D. Yet we notice distinct characteristic features in them which may be conveniently, if not very accurately, expressed by designing them as primitive, classic, and romantic.

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Even at the risk of slight inaccuracies we may very appropriately classify the sculptures in other localities under one or other of these heads. It will be beyond the scope of the present work to undertake a detailed study of these sculptures. After having broadly indicated the nature of the three different schools we shall content ourselves with a brief review of the sculptures of other localities in relation to them.

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The sculptures of Pringapus belong to the Dieng school. So far as purely decorative sculptures are concerned those of Pringapus constitute a great advance upon Dieng. Here the sculptures consist mainly of scrolls and spirals interspersed with figures of men, birds and semi-divine beings, a very familiar Indian design which was carried to its highest excellence during the Gupta period. Brandes has given a spiritual interpretation of these sculptures. In his opinion they convey a sense of repose and dignity and inspire the visitors with devotion and spiritualism which it was the manifest object of the temple to invoke. Without going so far, it is easy to recognise that the theme of these sculptures is in full harmony with, and calculated to emphasise the repose, serenity, and natural beauty of the environs of a temple. The Pringapus temple also illustrates the growing importance of decorative sculpture in a temple, but as yet it has not overshadowed the architecture.

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The decorative reliefs of Kalasan, Sari, Sevu, Merak, Pavon and Ngawen belong essentially to the Barabuḍur school, and possess the same degree of excellence. But they appear to possess greater attraction simply because they are not subordinated to the narrative reliefs and possess a richer content and variety. A few specimens from Caṇḍi Merak are illustrated in Plates XXIV—XXV.

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The decorative reliefs of Caṇḍi Plaosan are more exuberant but less pleasing. They consist mainly of floral spirals and show technical skill of a high order. But they seem to overshadow the architectural designs and there is a sort of monotony unrelieved by human or animal figures such as we find in the cases of Mendut and Pavon.

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The fine images of Buddha and Avalokiteśvara in Caṇḍi Mendut (Pl. XIV) are very beautifully modelled and belong to the classical style of Central Java such as we find in Barabuḍur They show the same characteristic features with perhaps a greater degree of refinement and delicacy. Attention may be drawn to the fact that the back frame of the throne on which Avalokiteśvara is seated possesses the same Siṃha-Makara motive as we find in the case of the famous Buddha image of Sārnāth. The halo is, however, different. The Buddha figure may be compared with that in cave no IX at Ajaṇṭā.¹

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¹ V.A. Smith—Fine Arts, p. 178, fig. 123

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The images of Caṇḍi Banon (Pl. XXIII), though Brāhmanical, belong to the school of Barabuḍur rather than that of Lara-Jongrang. Figure (b) is a fine example of elegant modelling. Even the legs and feet which are usually executed in a rough way, are beautifully modelled, and the ornaments of the body are disposed of in such a way as not to obstruct a full view of the whole figure. There is an indescribable charm in every detail, and although the figure is shown as standing erect, its graceful posture offers a striking contrast to the somewhat stiff attitude of the Mahādeva of Lara-Jongrang. The Śiva image of Semarang² also shows some of the fine qualities which we notice in those of Banon.

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² T.B.G., Vol, 71 (1931), p. 666, pl. 3.

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The Caṇḍi Vurung has also yielded a number of fine images of gods. The relief figures as well as images in the round at Merak also show a graceful charm and freedom of pose (Pll. XXIV-V).

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The images of Caṇḍi Plaosan show a definite break from the glorious traditions of Barabuḍur. The images of Bodhisattvas (Pl. XXVI) show a richer decoration, both of the body as well as of the halo, but the modelling is less refined, and the expression and features, less elegant. In this respect they rather resemble the images of Lara-Jongrang.

Linked texts (6)

Divyāvadāna — Sanskrit
Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit
Sārnāth
Sāñcī
Ajanta
Lanka