Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champa; Vol. II: Suvarnadvipa) v2.c21.s3.t2: § 2. Singhasari Period

Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champā; Vol. II: Suvarṇadvīpa) v2.c21.s3.t2

Language: English

§ 2. Singhasari Period

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The first notable monument in Eastern Java of which enough remains to give us a fair idea of its architectural peculiarities is Caṇḍi Kidal² (Pl. XXVII Fig. 1), the cremation-sanctuary of king Anuṣanātha. As this king died in A.D. 1248, the temple must have been built within a few years of that date, before (if the king himself had made it) or after (if it was built by his successor ).

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² A detailed account is given in ‘Publicaties van den Oudheidkundige Dienst in Nederlandsch Indie—Deel I; for a shorter account cf. Krom—Kunst, II, pp. 53-67, Pl. 49.

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The basement of the temple is square in plan with projection in front. It stands on a base consisting of a plinth, a lower band, the broad central part divided into deeply sunken panels between pilasters, an upper band and the cornice. There is no decoration on any part of the base.

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The basement proper consists of a plinth, the lower band, an ogee moulding, the broad central part, a second ogee, the upper band, and the cornice. An ogee moulding springing inward from above the cornice leads to a terrace on which the main body of the temple stands, leaving a small open passage all round it. There is no decoration in the basement except the central part. Here, between two projecting upper and lower bands, decorated with curling foliage-motive, the vertical part is divided by pilasters into a number of oblong sunken panels, on which we find sculptured medallions with foliage-motif sometimes with the addition of animal figures. The pilasters are decorated with vase-and-foliage motif. In the distribution of ornaments between panels and pilasters we find a radical difference from the art of Central Java, where the heavier decorations—like vase—are on the panels and the pilasters are either empty or carry only light vertical decorations. In the four corners of the basement, across the entire breadth of the central part, are four lions, in high relief, sitting on a cushion and looking in front. Similar lions adorn the two corners made by the projections and the staircase. In the middle of the central part (except on the front side) are also figures in high relief depicting a Garuḍa carrying, respectively, on the north, east and southern sides, a seated female figure, a nicely decorated vase with a cover, and a spout in the form of a nāga and three nāgas. These probably refer to the vase of Amṛta carried by Garuḍa, the female figure denoting Lakṣmī. The representation of the Garuḍa conforms remarkably well to that of Belahan and thus Caṇḍi Kidal may be regarded as belonging to the art of the older period.

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The main body of the temple stands on a low base which has the same outline as that of the basement. Above this are the walls, a great part of which is covered by the doorway in front, and a large niche on each of the other three sides. The remaining parts of the walls have several plain bands, between the cornice and an ogee above, and the plinth and another ogee below. Immediately under the upper ogee, and also just above the lower one, are several projecting and receding string courses, either plain, or decorated with palmette, garland, spiral or foliage motives. The plain portion of the walls between these has just in the centre a flat horizontal band, decorated with recalcitrant spirals, ending in a triangular piece at each corner of the building. Above and below this central band the plain space is covered by a medallion on each side of the niches.

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These niches stand in high relief against the background of the walls, and their upper part consists of a series of square fillets each projecting beyond the lower. These are surmounted by the cornice which has pointed pieces at the two ends, and stands at the same height as the central decorated band of the walls. In front of the niche is a projecting door frame crowned by a Kāla-head which is placed against, and covers the central part of the upper bands of the niches. The cornice supports a framework which may be called the roof of the niche. It is topped by two thick decorated bands above which rises the crowning piece, a broad flat and ornamented block of stone reaching up to the upper ogee of the walls. The posts on two sides of the niche end in a sort of curbs with volute ends which run over the proper base of the temple and intersect it in the middle. The niches are empty.

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A staircase in front of the temple leads to the terrace above the basement. The part of the projection adjoining the staircase has a different profile from the rest which follows that of the basement. A second staircase enclosed between curbs with volute ends leads to the doorway of the cella, and obviously this feature is partly imitated in the case of the niches. In almost all respects the front resembles the side walls, if we substitute for the niches the doorway whose ornaments repeat on a large scale those of the niche. There are, however, two notable exceptions. In the first place, the big Kāla-head placed above the doorway covers the entire upper part reaching the first stage of the roof : secondly, there are two small niches on two sides of the doorway, just where we should expect the lower medallions on the analogy of the side-walls. These niches resemble in main features the great ones on the side-walls, and one of them has in front the figure of Mahākāla. The other niche was evidently meant for the other gate-keeper, Nandiśvara.

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From the doorway two small steps lead down to the cella. The walls are quite plain and end in the usual vaulted roof by means of a series of projecting layers. The chamber is empty, the Śiva image it once contained having disappeared.

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The roof of the temple consists of a number of horizontal stages, each receding only a little from the lower, so that the whole structure must have originally attained to a considerable height. The first two stages, separated by a deep indentation and a plain band, consists of flat bands decorated with branch and foliage motive and intersected by a number of zigzag lines. The third and fourth stages consist of a number of sunken panels flanked by pilasters with a series of lower and uppper bands. The vertical height of these stages offers a striking contrast to the flat horizontal stages bellow. The fifth and sixth stages correspond to the first two, and though the upper part of the roof is ruined, there is hardly any doubt that these alternating double stages were repeated until the space was sufficiently diminished to be covered by a crowning piece.

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Just in front of the main staircase is a rectangular terrace, more than a yard high. There is a figure, probably of Viṣṇu, and formerly there were more, on this terrace. Both the temple and the terrace were surrounded by a stone wall more than 1½ ft. high, enclosing an area about 22½ yards square. The temple, however, does not occupy the centre of this area, and there are remains of a second enclosure made of brick. The foundations of three other structures and a bathing-place are to be found in the neighbourhood. It may be noted that the temple is made of stone but brick is used in filling up the interior.

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To the north-west of Singhasāri lies the tower-temple known as Caṇḍi Singhasāri¹ (Pl. XXVIII). On a low and broad platform about 46½ ft. square, rises the basement about 11 ft. high. It has a complex profile consisting of the ogee moulding and a number of projecting and receding courses. It is square in shape with deep projections on all sides, thus having the shape of a Greek cross.

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¹ A comprehensive account of the temple with numerous illustrations is given in Vol. II, of the Archaeologisch Onderzoek op Java en Madura (1909). For a shorter account cf. Krom—Kunst, II, pp, 70-86, Pll. 50-54. References to literature on the Caṇḍi Singhasāri are given in the two books noted above. On the image of Bhairava now at Leiden, which is supposed originally to have belonged to this temple, and important hypotheses derived from this, cf. T.B.G., 1925, pp. 521 ff; 1934, pp. 441 ff.

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The main body of the temple stands on the square basement, its lower parts being surrounded by a stone ring which crowns the basement. It is about 21½ ft. high and square in shape with a slightly projecting niche on each side. These niches have separate profiles of their own, and a Kāla-head, placed above them, reaches up to the cornice. The roof above it consisted of several stages of which two alone remain. The first stage consisted of several horizontal courses. One of them is decorated with lions' heads, looking front, placed side by side, and another with a pair of lions sitting back to back between a makara on each side. The next stage above it consists of five miniature temples on each side. Nothing remains of the rest of the roof, which evidently consisted of repetitions of the two lower stages.

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Two characteristic features distinguish this temple. In the first place, the projections of the basement which cover almost its entire height upto the cornice, do not correspond to any similar projections in the main body of the temple and are developed into separate chapels. These have independent profiles and look like four additional buildings added to the original structure. Four big Kāla-heads which crowned them are still the dominating features of these buildings, but they are badly damaged (Pl. XXXIX, Fig. 2).

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Secondly, the cella inside is within the basement, the western side chapel serving as its vestibule. Thus what appears from outside as the main body of the temple is really above the cella and should rather be regarded as its roof.

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Like Caṇḍi Asu, the decorative work of the building was left unfinished, though we can judge of its character from a few completed specimens. Thus the posts of the southern niche are decorated with foliage-spiral while the other niches are quite plain, and the blocks of stone under these posts in each of the niches were evidently meant to be carved into some figures. The Kāla-head on the eastern niche was scarcely begun while the others were fully worked. The latter show how the lower part has been conventionalised into foliage patterns though the upper part still betrays the real character of the monster-head.

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Of the figures of gods which once adorned the cella, the side-chapels, and the niches, only a damaged figure of Bhaṭāra-guru is now *in situ*, in the southern chapel. Four others, Durgā, Gaṇeśa, Nandiśvara, and Mahākāla are now in the Leiden Museum. These are all remarkable for the rich decoration and the nice execution of details which characterise the Singhasāri school of art.

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The presence in the roof of a band with animal motive, particularly that of lion's head and *makara*, led Brandes to formulate a direct Indian influence. This is, however, denied by Krom who attributes the similarity to a common derivation from old Indian art. The absence of these features in Central Java is explained away by assuming peculiar liking of the East-Javanese people for this sort of decoration.

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As regards the date of the building opinions differ. Brandes concluded from the difference in style that Caṇḍi Singhasāri was later than Caṇḍi Jago. He further identified it with Caṇḍi Pūrvapatapan, the burial-temple of king Kṛtanagara according to Pararaton. On this assumption he attributed the unfinished character of the temple to the sudden catastrophe which involved Kṛtanagara and his kingdom in a common ruin in A.D. 1292.

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Krom, however, points out that the materials at our disposal are insufficient for the assertion, either that Caṇḍi Singhasāri is later than Caṇḍi Jago, or that the former represents the burial-temple of king Kṛtanagara. He, however, accepts Brandes' arguments in so far as it relates to the close relationship, both in style and decoration, between Caṇḍi Jago and Caṇḍi Singhasāri, and relegates both to the Singhasāri period.

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Caṇḍi Jago¹, also called Caṇḍi Tumpang, is one of the most important monuments of the Singhasāri period. It is one of the two burial-temples of king Viṣṇuvardhana, the one in which he was represented as a Buddhist god. As king Viṣṇuvardhana died in 1268, the temple must have been erected some years before or after that date.

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¹ Vol. I, of the Archaeologisch Onderzoek of Java en Madura (1904) deals with Caṇḍi Jago with copious illustrations. For a shorter account cf. Krom—Kunst, II, pp. 95—136, Pll. 57-63. References to literature on the subject are given in these publications.

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The temple (Pl. XXVII, Fig. 2) stands on three platforms each of which is not only smaller than the lower, but also considerably set back behind it. This gives the temple a peculiar appearance, like a tower-temple on the back portion of a raised structure.

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The first platform is 6½ ft. high and 25½ yds. long. The back part is a square measuring more than 15 yds. each way. In front of it are three successive projections, the first one 13 yds. wide running up to a length of 14 ft., the second 10½ yds. wide and about 9 ft. long, while the third or the last has a width of 8½ yds. and a length of 8 ft. In the angles formed by the first and the second projections are corner pieces with independent profile, a characteristic of East-Javanese style. In the two angles made by the second and third projections are placed two staircases against the second projection so that the third one looks almost like a landing or platform between them. The profile of the first platform is of the usual type. Above a high plinth, which nearly covers half the height, we find the usual vertical central part between an ogee moulding and other upper and lower bands. The vertical central part is sculptured with continuous reliefs and projects forward. The ogee moulding and the cornice were decorated respectively with lotus leaves and floral scroll with birds and animals. The birds and animals serve, in the main, merely a decorative rôle, though it appears from some loose fragments that there might have been representations of animal stories.

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The second platform may be divided into three parts. Beginning from behind, the first part is a square, each side measuring 30 ft. with slight projections, 18 ft. long, in the middle of all sides except the front, where two notches separate it from the next part which has the same width as the first and a length of more than 15 ft. The third part is a projection from the middle of the second part, having a width of 10 ft. and a depth of 5½ ft. On two sides of the third part the vacant space of the second part is almost covered by the staircases and their heavy stone curbs, beautifully decorated in front and sides by foliage and animal motif (Pl. XLI, Fig. 2). As in the case of the first platform, the third or foremost part of the second may be regarded as a landing between the staircases.

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The second platform has a very complex profile, consisting, besides the ogee mouldings, of a large number of projecting and receding courses both above and below the central vertical part. The central part, decorated with continuous relief sculptures, is sunk and not projecting like that of the lower platform. The decorations of the ogee mouldings and the cornice resemble those of the first platform, but there are a number of other bands having decorations of a different type such as geometrical patterns or a waving twisted rope with pointed stakes.

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The second platform being smaller in size than the first on which it rests, and having a different ground plan, there is naturally a passage of irregular shape round it. On this, close to the plinth, is a stoneband completely encircling the entire second platform. It does not, however, follow the windings of this platform but has a simpler ground plan. From the back line, 11½ yds. wide, the two sides run straight to the front for a distance of 16 yds. Then turning inwards for 3 ft. on each side, the two lines continue for more than 4 ft. where they are joined by the front line, which has thus a reduced width of 9½ yds. This stone band round the second platform is carved with a running frieze of sculptured reliefs.

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The third platform is square in shape, each side measuring nearly 23 ft. with slight projections on three sides, 14 ft. broad and 9 inches deep. In front a similar projection is covered almost entirely by two staircases, coming up sideways from right and left and thus at right angle to the main axis of the building. Beyond these staircases was placed originally a small terrace, which was, however, later increased in size and hid the exterior of the stone-curbs of the staircases.

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The profile of the third platform resembles that of the first, save that the central part, with relief sculptures, is sunk and not projecting, and its upper and lower bands, resemble those of the second platform.

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Above these three platforms rises the main body of the temple. In order to bring this temple in a line with others we may regard the first platform as the foot of the basement and the second, as the basement itself, while the third may be regarded as the base of the temple.

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The temple is square in plan, each side measuring about 18½ ft., with slight projections on all sides measuring about 11½ ft. broad and 9 inches deep. The projection on the front contains the doorway, while the three others have each a niche 2 ft. 3 inches broad and more than 3 ft. 3 inches deep. The profile of this temple has now mostly disappeared but resembled that of the second platform. The walls had, among other decorations, a frieze of sculptured reliefs, and, in keeping with the style of Eastern Java, we find a decorated band exactly in its centre. Above this band nothing now remains, though it is probable that for the sake of symmetry the decoration of the upper half corresponded with that of the lower half.

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The jambs of the doorway and the niches are decorated with foliage motif with a lion at the lower ends (Pl. XLI, Fig. 1). The square blocks supporting the jambs and the lintel are all similarly decorated. Four great Kāla heads (Pl. XXXIX, Fig. 1) which crowned the door and the niches have been recovered from the scattered ruins round the temple.

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The cella was about 10 ft. square but the floor and the walls are too badly damaged to give any clear idea of the nature of the room. There are several holes on the floor which were probably designed to carry off water.

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Reference has already been made to narrative reliefs in various parts of the building (Pl. XLVI, Fig. 1). About their technical character along with that of the decoration in general of the temple, which all betray a typically East-Javanese character, more will be said in a later chapter. It will suffice here to say only a few words about the general contents of these reliefs, so far as they have been definitely identified.

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In the first platform we find the animal stories of the Tantri texts and the Jātakas, as well as the beginning of the story of Kuñjarakarṇa. The latter is continued in the stone belt round the second platform. The reliefs in the second platform give the story of Pārthayajña, and those of the third, the story of Arjunavivāha. The little that remains of the reliefs of the body of the temple shows that they dealt with the story of Kṛṣṇa, and the episode of Kālayavana is still traceable.

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The main image of the temple, that of Amoghapāśa, representing the features of king Viṣṇuvardhana, was found among the ruins in a very damaged condition. The images of the four followers, who usually accompany the god, have also been found. These are (1) Bharāla Sudhanakumāra (Pl. XXXIII), (2) Śyāmatārā, (3) Bharāli Bhr̥kuṭi, and (4) Bharāla Hayagrīva. The names of these deities are written on the stone in purely North-Indian character, which was then not in use and probably also unknown in Java (that of the second has been lost).

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Along with these have been found five smaller images, with similar inscriptions, representing Bharāla Akṣobhya, Bharāla Ratnasambhava, Bharāli Māmakī, Bharāli Pāṇḍuravāsini, and Bharāli Locanā. We have thus in Caṇḍi Jago almost a complete set of the Dhyāni Buddhas and their Śaktis.

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The Indian origin of the inscriptions as well as the technical peculiarities of these images led Brandes to the view that they were either directly imported from India or made by Indian artists in Java. Krom, however, disputes both these views. The question will be discussed in a later section.

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The Caṇḍi Jago undoubtedly offers one of the most important relics of later Buddhism in Eastern Java. Its sanctity in the eyes of the contemporaries was indeed very great. King Kṛtanagara, son of Viṣṇuvardhana, made bronze plates in which the deities of this temple, referred to above, were united in a group, and five of these bronze replicas have come to light. These contain the names of the gods, the Buddhist formula, and a short record of king Kṛtanagara, all written in the same Indian script as we find on the stone images. The same group was reproduced in stone by the same king and sent to Sumatra where it was formally set up in 1286 A.D.¹ It still exists and is known as the Amoghapāśa of Rambahan.

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¹ See Part I, p. 299.

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It may be noted here that an image of Dharmapāla has been found among the ruins of Caṇḍi Jago and a similar image has been found in Sumatra close to the place where the Amoghapāśa image was originally set up.

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§3. The Majapahit Period.

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In spite of the political convulsions that transferred the seat of authority from Singhasāri to Majapahit there is no corresponding break in the continuity of the art traditions in Eastern Java. This is less to be wondered at when we remember that the royal dynasty of Majapahit derived its claims to rule over Java from that of Singhasāri and tried by every means to keep alive the bond between the two. Naturally the art of Singhasāri continued to develop in a normal way even under the new regime.

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The first notable monument of this period is Caṇḍi Javi¹ at the foot of the Velirang. It is the same as temple Jajava which contained the remains of king Kṛtanagara and where the king was represented by the excellent images of Śiva and Buddha. It was begun by king Kṛtanagara himself, but completed, most probably, by his son-in-law Kṛtarājasa Jayavardhana, the first king of Majapahit. The Nāgara-Kṛtāgama, to which we owe this information, also gives an interesting description of the temple when it existed in its full glory. It appears to have been of the shape of a tower-temple and contained an image of Śiva; but an image of Akṣobhya was placed hidden in an upper chamber which, however, subsequently disappeared.

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¹ Krom—Kunst II, pp. 138-150.

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At present nothing exists except the basement. It is square in plan with two successive projections in front, each having a different profile. Against the second projection was laid the staircase and on both sides of it were placed corner buildings in the usual way. The basement had its central part decorated by a long series of relief sculptures divided into panels.

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The small temple, rather the model of a temple, at Kotes, to the east of Blitar, known also as Caṇḍi Papoh² is important as it gives us a complete representation of an East-Javanese temple, particularly its roof. The temple itself is square in plan, with projections on all sides, containing the door and niches, and the usual structures at the two angles formed by the front projection and the wall of the temple. Each side of the square measures only 34 inches, but the height of the temple is more than 8 feet. The roof looks like a truncated pyramid, consisting of a succession of four receding horizontal stages, square in shape and sharply differentiated from one another by a deeply sunken part. Above the fourth stage is a plain broad square block slightly tapering upwards, which supported the crowning ornament. The three lower stages of the roof were formed of broad horizontal bands decorated with scroll-work and heavy antefix ornaments both in the middle and the corner. The decoration of the fourth stage was somewhat different. The images found among the ruins indicate that the temple was Śaivite in character. The temple is to be dated in 1301 A. D., as this date is inscribed on one of the two altars standing on the same high and broad platform on which the temple stands.

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² Ibid, pp. 152-7, Pl. 64.

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Very little now remains of the palaces and temples that once adorned the city of Majapahit. The most notable monument in the vast area of its ruins is the gateway, like South-Indian Gopuram, at Bajang-ratu¹ (Pl. XXIX, Fig. 1), about 54 ft. high. The central structure, which alone remains in a fair state of preservation, is built on the model of a temple, square in plan with projections on all sides. On the north and south these projections are covered by the doorway while in the other two directions there are the usual niches. The most interesting feature of the building is the roof which has been preserved almost in its entirety. It consists of a succession of fourteen horizontal stages, each only a little smaller than and slightly set back behind the one below, so that the whole structure has a pyramidal shape. The lowest two stages of the roof consist of flat bands with relief. The two above them consist of a series of five moulded balusters on each side, connected by a horizontal decorating band placed on their top. The space between the balusters being empty, the stages containing them offer a sharp contrast to the others. The upper stages merely consist of an alternation of these double stages, on a gradually reduced scale. Above the topmost stage occur three horizontal bands which support the massive top-piece, a square block of stone with slightly tapering walls resting on a lotus band. This top-piece supported the crowning ornament which, however, is missing.

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¹ Ibid, pp. 190-3, Pl. 68.

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Of the notable monuments in Eastern Java that were erected during the glorious period of the Majapahit empire, a few alone remain to tell the tale of its old grandeur.

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The Caṇḍi Jabung¹ (Pl. XXIX, Fig. 2) to the east of Kraksaan in the Residency of Pasuruhan is an excellent example. The basement and the base of the temple are square in plan with projections on all sides, but the main body of the temple is circular in shape with rectangular projections on the four sides. A decorated stone band, on a plain plinth, forms the lower part of the basement. Then follow the decorated ogee mouldings between ornamented upper and lower bands, and a profusely decorated central vertical part, consisting of sculptured panels, divided by decorated pilasters.

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¹ Ibid, pp. 196-203, Pl. 70,

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The base of the temple also has decorated ogee mouldings and a central part consisting of sculptured panels. The main body of the temple, as already said above, is round. It has a complex profile consisting of a large number of plain courses both above and below. Between them are three ornamented bands, one in the middle and the other two forming respectively the lowest band of the upper moulding and the topmost of the lower one. The rectangular projections are developed into niches with projecting and decorated doorways surmounted by Kāla-Makara. They stand on rectangular bases and have had an absolutely independent profile. The front projection, of course, served as the main doorway leading to the cella about 8½ ft. square. Little now remains of the roof. The present height of the temple is about 52½ ft. The peculiar shape of the temple, *viz.*, a combination of round and angular forms, the skilful design by which the upper circular part was merged into the lower rectangular one, the harmonious adjustment and well-balanced proportion of the different parts, and finally the scheme of decoration, at once vigorous and restrained, all invest this monument with a high degree of importance.

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This Buddhist temple was known as Bajrajināparamitāpura and is probably identical with the temple of Kalayu, referred to in the Nāgara-Kṛtāgama, as the burial temple of a member of the family of king Hayam Wuruk.

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Not far from Paree, to the east of Kaḍiri, lie the remains of Caṇḍi Suravana¹ (old Śura-bāṇa), also called Caṇḍi Bloran, which was visited by Hayam Wuruk in A. D. 1361. At present nothing remains save the basement, about 25½ ft. square, with a series of three successively smaller projections on the front *i. e.* western side.

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¹ Ibid, pp. 209-216, Pl. 71-7.

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The foot of the basement, about 1½ ft. high, consists of a plain plinth, a decorated cornice, and the central vertical part between a decorated upper and a lower band. The central part consists of projecting sculptured panels, divided by plain flat pilasters. At each corner are dwarfish monster-figures, and in the centre of each side (except the front), a decorated rectangular block of stone, all of which stretch from the plinth to the cornice. Above this, the basement proper really consists of two parts, separated by double ogee mouldings decorated with lotus-leaf *motif*. The lower part is plain, with only a small decorated piece of stone projecting from the centre. The upper part is almost entirely covered on each side by a big oblong sculptured panel, the small margins on its two sides forming two raised and decorated pilasters. The sculptures on the big panels illustrate the poem Arjunavivāha. The sculptures on the corner pilasters have been explained by Brandes as the scenes from Rāmāyaṇa, but this is doubted by Krom. Fragments of images found among the ruins indicate the Śaivite character of the temple.

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Of the neighbouring temple called Caṇḍi Tigavangi.¹ also the high basement alone remains. It has a large number of decorated mouldings above a plain plinth. The central vertical part is carved with a running frieze representing the scenes of Sudamala. According to Pararaton Caṇḍi Tigavangi was formerly known as Kusumapura and was the burial temple of the Prince of Matahun, Hayam Wuruk’s brother-in-law, who died in A. D. 1388.

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¹ Ibid, pp. 216-222, Pl. 73.

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The Caṇḍi Keḍaton (known earlier as Andungbiru )², erected in A.D. 1370, lies to the south of Kraksaan. It is a basement, pure and simple, with no superstructure above it. It is 20 ft. square, with a projection on the north, and offers the characteristic features of an East-Javanese basement. Its panels and pilasters are decorated with relief sculptures illustrating Arjunavivāha. They show, however, considerable variations from the existing text of the poem.

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² Ibid, pp. 223-229.

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The Caṇḍi Pari³ (Pl. XXX) to the north-west of Porrong, erected in A.D. 1371, offers a striking contrast to East-Javanese temples and shows many features of the temples of Champā, e.g. those of Mison. The roof and the basement are mostly ruined. In the middle of each wall is a small niche with independent profile and a triangular roof. The walls have a large number of plain and decorated bands both above and beneath the niches. Otherwise, the walls of the temples are almost plain, for although there are plain oblong panels they can hardly be distinguished from the equally plain background of the walls. The temple is made of brick and was undoubtedly influenced by examples of Cham temples.

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³ Ibid, pp. 229-234, Pl. 74.

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Another monument of the same period is the gateway of Jedong¹, erected in A.D. 1385, which has the profile of a temple. Its decoration was left incomplete. The most interesting part of the building is the roof which is fairly preserved up to a great height, and consists alternately of a broad horizontal stage and a vertical one, consisting of a series of moulded balusters.

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¹ Ibid, pp. 238-243, Pl. 76.

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The greatest and most famous monument in Eastern Java is the temple complex of Panataran² (old name Palah), to the north-east of Blitar. Unlike Caṇḍi Sevu the various structures that compose the group of Panataran were not parts of the same plan or design but grew up sporadically around what had come to be regarded as a sacred ground from early times. The building activities can be traced throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries A. D. The great temple which naturally occupies our chief attention belongs probably to the middle of the fourteenth century A.D. during the Regency, while the Peṇḍapa-terrace and a smaller temple, which come next in point of importance, belong to the reign of Hayam Wuruk.

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² Ibid, pp. 244-284 (Pll. 78-87), which also gives, on pp. 283-4, references to literature on the subject. The Rāmāyaṇa reliefs are reproduced in Kats—Het Rāmāyaṇa (Figs 1-106)

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The whole temple area, 196 yds. by 65 yds., was enclosed by a wall with its chief entrance to the west. The enclosed area was again divided into three parts by two cross walls. The main temple occupied the rearmost *i.e.* the eastern part (Pl. XXXI). Three terraces, each smaller than, and having a different ground-plan from the lower, supported the main temple. The temple has, however, disappeared altogether, and the terraces alone remain.

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The first terrace is square in plan with projections on each side. The front projection is deeper than the rest, and the walls on its two sides have smaller double projections. Two staircases, built against these double projections lead from the ground to the first terrace. Together with the projections the first terrace measures about 37 yds. by 33 yds.

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The second terrace was placed on the first leaving a passage around it on all sides. It is also almost square in plan, each side measuring about 21 yds. But instead of projections there are recesses in the centre of each face. In front, however, a large part of the recess is covered by a staircase built against a double projection. As the recesses correspond to the projections of the first terrace, a large space was available in this part of the passage, and four small chapels were built here on the four sides. These have, however, utterly perished.

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The elevation of the first two terraces is similar and resembles that of the basement of a temple. Its characteristic features were the decorated pilasters at the corners which project in front along the entire height above the plinth, and support a miniature temple above the floor of the terrace. The reliefs on the central part, in the first terrace, consist of a number of medallions, on three superimposed slabs, decorated with reliefs representing an animal amidst foliage. These animals are of great varieties including even some species which are not found in Java. The space between the medallions, resembling flat pilasters, are covered with reliefs representing scenes from the Rāmāyaṇa. In the second terrace, the central part is covered by continuous reliefs illustrating Kṛṣṇayana. It appears that the version of the poem followed by the artist is somewhat different from the existing text, but there is an agreement about the essential points.

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The third terrace is square in plan with triple projections in front against the centre of which the staircase is placed. It stands on the second terrace, leaving a passage all round. It has a very simple elevation, viz., the central part with decorated string courses above and below. The central part is divided into a number of sunken panels flanked by pilasters. The panels are decorated by winged nāgas with projecting heads, and the pilasters by winged lions with raised hind legs. The vertical character of the reliefs of the third terrace offers a striking contrast to the horizontal character of those of the first two, and clearly indicates that it was designed to support a structure above it. In other words, the third terrace may be regarded as the base of the temple which it once supported.

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Although nothing now remains above the third terrace the scattered fragments give some idea of the walls of the temple which once stood on it. A number of *gaṇa* figures as pilasters, and the panels between them, decorated with animal figures, served as the base. The upper part stood on a number of richly decorated courses, and had a great niche in the centre of each side, with images, respectively, of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, and Śiva, and their *Vāhanas*. There were also decorated panels and images of other gods *e.g.*, Indra, Kārttikeya, Vāyu, Agni, *etc.*, on their proper *Vāhanas*.

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The big images of four temple-guards, ( Pl. XL, Fig. 1. ) about 6¼ ft. high, found among the ruins, were originally placed on the two sides of the two staircases of the first terrace. The pedestal on which they stand bears the date A.D. 1347.

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As already said above, the temple area was divided into three parts. In addition to the big temple there are remains of a stone and a brick temple in the eastern part.

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In the central part are found detached images of *rākṣasas*, temple-guards (dated A.D. 1319), a door-lintel (dated A.D. 1318), and remains of temples, both of brick and stone. But the most remarkable is the stone basement on which has been reconstructed the small Nāga temple.

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The elevation of the basement is somewhat complex, consisting of a large number of plain courses and ogee mouldings. On the corners and the middle of the wall of the temple, as well as on two sides of the doorway, are decorated pilasters supporting richly ornamented and well-proportioned human figures, most probably divine beings. Sunken panels between these pilasters are decorated by medallions with animal and foliage reliefs. Waving bodies of serpents, reaching as high as the cornice, and down as far as the top of the panels, surround the temple-walls on all sides, and are supported by the figures on the pilasters. It forms a very characteristic feature of the temple and reminds us of the waving garland motive of the Indian art. The staircase is enclosed between massive stone-rails with spiral ends. These are decorated with triangular reliefs and on two sides of it are the usual corner-structures.

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The front or westernmost part of the area contains, besides loose brick ruins, three monuments;—a small temple, dated A.D. 1369, in the axis of the big temple, the Peṇḍapa-terrace dated A.D. 1375, and lastly a terrace in the north-west corner.

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The temple belongs to the classical type of East Javanese art and offers a refreshing contrast to the innovations noticed in the big temple and the Nāga temple described above. The basement and the base of the temple are square in plan, and have a very simple elevation consisting of plain courses. The body of the temple is also square in plan, but the continuity of the walls is broken by the niches on three sides and the door-way in front. These have independent elevations, and, with the Kala-heads above their cornices, extend almost over the whole length of the temple-wall from the base to the frieze below the cornice. The remaining portion of the wall consists of a number of plain and richly decorated courses, among the latter being the two ogee-mouldings, the course above the upper ogee, and three courses in the middle part.

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The roof has almost entirely disappeared, but as reconstructed in recent times with the help of loose fragments, it shows the usual pyramidal form of East Javanese temples, with alternate double horizontal and double vertical stages.

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The Peṇḍapa terrace is a long (north-south) and narrow platform of stone approached by two staircases on the west. The stone rails of the stair-cases are decorated by a triangular ornament above, and a serpent below. The body of the serpent runs beneath the rail, along the entire base of the terrace, forming its lower course. Above this is a panel with continuous reliefs, broken only by the two staircases. Above this frieze of sculptures is the projecting cornice decorated with animal and foliage motive, which also occasionally illustrates some animal fables. The reliefs on the central frieze illustrate, among others, the story of Bubukṣa. As in the case of Barabuḍur there are still remains of short labels, indicating the story to be illustrated, which were no doubt meant for the guidance of the artist. But even these have not enabled the scholars to identify all the reliefs.

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The other terrace in the north-west corner is quite plain and does not require any detailed description. Beyond this we come to the main entrance of the big temple area. It is a broad doorway with an opening about 13 ft. wide, and is flanked by two kneeling Rākṣasa figures. The date 1242 (A.D. 1320) engraved on these figures, taken along with the dates found on the monuments of the second part, indicate that the general plan of the temple area was completed in that year, and that some monuments, including the big temple, were merely added later in the vacant spaces. It may be added that the temple complex was dedicated to Śiva.

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Beyond the enclosing wall and to the south-east of it are the remains of a bath constructed in A.D. 1415 on a much lower level than the temple area. The oblong cistern is approached by a staircase, and is open to the east. The walls on three other sides are made of brick below supporting a single upper course of blocks of stones carved with reliefs, representing animal-stories¹. Two plain courses of stones above it are later additions. In front of the side walls are two pilasters, each carved with a human figure on its two visible sides. These figures are clad in very simple style but executed in bold outline.

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¹ The interpretation of Krom is corrected by Crucq in O.V. 1930, p. 221.

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Caṇḍi Panataran is the last great monument of Eastern Java of which sufficient remains exist to give us some definite idea of its character. Ruins exist everywhere to indicate that the art of temple-building continued to flourish till the last days of Hindu rule in Java, and even later, but unfortunately very little is preserved to enable us to add any new aspect in the delineation of East Javanese art. We shall, therefore, conclude this account by referring to a few more architectural remains which offer some peculiar or striking features.

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The Caṇḍi Vringin Brañjang¹, to the south of the Klut hill, is of a unique design. It is made of stone and is nearly square in plan, measuring 14 ft. by 11 ft. It has neither basement nor any base, and the walls rise directly from the ground to a height of 10½ ft. up to the simple mouldings of the cornice. The most characteristic feature is, however, the roof which consists of four slanting sides meeting in a point, like a thatched cottage in Bengal. Another peculiarity is the total absence of decoration.

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¹ Krom—Kunst, II, pp. 314-6, Pl. 91.

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The Caṇḍi Jadi, on the Vajak or Vali-Kukun hill, is another unique structure. On an ordinary basement, square in plan, with shallow projections, and with usual elevation, stands a similar superstructure, which is, however, soon changed into an octagonal form, supporting a round wall, without any opening.

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The inside is also round and there is no trace of a staircase for descending to the interior. Various suggestions have been made regarding this building. It has been supposed to be a prison or an observatory. The latest view is that of Krom who regards it as a sort of ‘Tower of Silence’ where the Parsis expose their dead bodies for being eaten by vultures. This is, however, contested by Stutterheim who regards the monument as the base of a stūpa, the round pit serving as the hidden chamber for relics. The upper part being constructed of perishable materials has altogether vanished².

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² Ibid, pp. 320-21; B.K.I. Vol. 80 (1924), pp. 447 ff and plates; also Vol. 81, pp. 543ff and plates.

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The temple-complex of Selakelir¹, on the Penanggungan hill, bears two stones dated A. D. 1434 and 1442, and may thus be regarded as one of the latest products of Majapahit art with definitely known dates. It is in a very ruined condition, but enough remains to show that while the general plan and even the detailed decorations follow the standard model of East Javanese temples, already important modifications have been introduced which were destined slowly to change the style in a new direction. These remarks are specially applicable to the small temple on the north-eastern corner. Here not only the relative proportions of the different parts are markedly changed, such *e. g.*, as the space between lower and middle courses, the size of the corner-piece *etc.*, but *motifs*, well-known in themselves, have been put in places where they did not occur before. A characteristic example of the latter is furnished by the decorations of the door-jambs with waving-rope motive. Similar remarks are applicable also to the sculptures. On the whole it is evident that the style is undergoing a marked change in order to develop in a new direction.

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¹ Ibid, pp. 399-406, Pl. 102.

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A brief reference should also be made to a few cave temples in East Java. A group of two, known as Selamangleng² is found to the west of Blitar, on the north of Vajan or Valikukun hill. One of them is a roughly hewn chamber more than 13 ft. broad, about 10 ft. deep, and 6 ft. high. It is open on the front, and a little more than 2½ ft. above the floor, the three walls are decorated with continuous reliefs, illustrating the poem Arjunavivāha. A little to the south is a second cave without any decoration, but the rock-wall between the two was once carved with reliefs.

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² Ibid, pp. 318-19, Pl. 92.

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Another cave, also called Selamangleng³ lies on the hillock Klotak in Wilis mountain, to the west of Kediri. It is not only more complex in design but also more richly adorned with decorative sculptures and narrative reliefs. The front wall, looking east, has two entrances. The one to the right has a rectangular doorway leading to a chamber (No. 1) about 13 ft. broad, 6⅓ ft. deep and 5¾ ft. high. Against the back wall is a stone bench with a raised cushion on one side, while a doorway leads to a second chamber (No. 2) further back, nearly octagonal in shape, and measuring about 10 ft. broad, 8½ ft. deep, and 5¼ ft. high. A pedestal placed against the northern wall of this chamber supports a polished stone with a decorated band, evidently the backpiece of the seated image which once occupied the pedestal, with probably two more images on two sides. To the right is a small niche.

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³ Ibid, pp. 329-332.

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The entrance on the left-hand side of the front wall, leads through a somewhat rounded doorway to a chamber (No. 3) about 6½ ft. broad and 5¾ ft. high, with a Nāga head amidst clouds, sculptured on the left-hand or southern wall. This chamber, which communicates with No. I, serves as an antechamber to another (No. 4) on a lower level, measuring 12½ ft. broad, 11 ft. deep, and nearly 6½ ft. high. Against its back wall, in the middle of a raised floor, a seated image, on a pedestal with lotus-cushion, is placed in a niche with cloud-lines, flanked by two smaller niches which no doubt served as lampstands. A small stairway, with 3 steps in the southern wall, leads up to a higher domed chamber (No. 5), 7⅓ ft. broad, 6½ ft. deep, and 6½ ft. high, against the back wall of which is a seated Buddha in Dharma-cakra mudrā.

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The cave complex is no doubt a combination of monastery and chapel as we find in India. Its most characteristic features are the decorative sculptures offering a variety of motifs, such as men, animals, birds, trees, hills, clouds, flames etc., and probably also some narrative reliefs illustrating Jātaka stories. The front wall has a niche which probably once contained an image, and by the side of it is an inscription in characters of the eleventh century A.D. The sculptures inside the cave, however, belong to the style of Panataran and thus indicate a later date. A loose fragment of a pedestal found on the site bears the date 1353 ( 1431 A. D. ). It is probable, therefore, that the cave was originally constructed in the eleventh century A. D. but its decoration was added four centuries later. The Buddha image may have belonged to the original cave.

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Reference has already been made to the unique cave at Siti Jedog which served as a burial place¹.

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¹ see above, p. 229.

Cites (2)

Jātaka — Pāli
Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit