History of the Qaraunah Turks in India c12.23

Language: English

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Though theologians and divines were considered as oracles of the law by Muhammadan rulers, a great change came over the position of the *‘Ulama* towards the close of the thirteenth century. The insecurity of the state caused by the fear of internal revolts and repeated Mughal raids tended to increase the authority of the crown. The temporal power gradually eclipsed the ecclesiastical and under *‘Ala-al-Din Khilji* the state claimed omnipotence and the claim was forcibly expressed by him. *‘Ala-al-Din* symbolised the unity of his people and the position which he occupied was the result of the unprecedented achievements of the monarchy. The memorable words which he spoke to Qazi Mughis,—"I do not know whether this is lawful or unlawful: whatever I think to be for the good of the state, or suitable for the emergency, that I decree"—succinctly sum up the new political doctrine. The first two Tughluqs were strong men who refused to follow in every thing the doctors of the divine law. Muhammad was a man of great ability well-versed in philosophy and dialectics and his masterful nature resented all dictation and encroachment upon his authority. He seldom consulted the *‘Ulama* and never followed their advice.

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It was impossible for a man of his rational frame of mind to submit to the cramping influence of a narrow sectarianism, and his mind, liberalised by his wide culture and contact with men of different nationalities, refused to give assent to what was inconsistent with public interest and his own authority. He laid his hands freely upon the members of the clerical party when he found them guilty of sedition or embezzlement of public funds in utter disregard of the inviolability which they claimed. Ibn Batūtah has recorded several instances in which the members of this sacrosanct order were severely punished by the Sultan and in some cases the severest penalties were inflicted upon them. The Sultan's view was sound, for how could he govern his large empire with its conflicting interests according to the canon law? He saw clearly the mischief which the adoption of ecclesiastical dogmas was likely to cause to the administration. War with the *‘Ulama* was inevitable. They could not approve of the acts of an administration which placed them on a level with the unbelievers. Their lament finds clear expression in the *Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi* of Zia Barani which is full of references to the ‘irreligious projects’ of the Sultan and the degradation of the priestly class brought about by his policy.

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Muhammad rejected with unrivalled courage the orthodox formulæ and freely associated with men who applied to religion the cold test of reason, and we see the bitterness aroused by his policy in the condemnation which Barani pours upon his advisers, whom he holds responsible for his alleged aberration from the right path. He deprived the priestly class of its long-enjoyed monopoly of the administration of justice, constituted himself into the Supreme Court of Appeal and freely revised, altered and rescinded the decisions of Qazis and muftis. He imposed a strict supervision over the administration of waqf properties and cashiered the mutawalis, who were mostly Shaikhs and Maulvis for their malpractices. Taxation was not to be restricted to the four taxes—Khirāj, Zakāt, Jeziyah and Khams, because the needs of the state were many and varied and could not be met unless more money came into the treasury.⁷ The share of the faithful in the booty captured in war was after ‘Ala-al-Din’s fashion restricted to one-fifth instead of four-fifths on which the clericalists laid much stress.⁸ The ordinary law of the land from which the priestly class had so far been exempt was rigorously applied to them and the new government insisted on the principle of efficiency and justice. Such treatment was bound to give offence to the class which considered itself the repository of all religious and civil law.

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Hence the malignant conspiracy which was formed by the ‘Ulama to traduce and disparage the Sultan. By the force of his personality and by means of drastic measures he maintained to the last day of his life the non-sectarian character of his government.