The Dynastic History of Northern India (Early Mediaeval Period) v1.c13.2

Language: English

v1.c13.2.1

The present State of Kashmir ‘covers an area of 80,900 square miles, extending from 32°17′ to 36°58′ N. and from 73°26′ to 80°30′ E.’ Its northern frontier almost touches the upper waters of the Ab-i-Panja. In the south it faces the Punjab districts of Jhelum, Gujrat, Sialkot and Gurdaspur. West to east it extends from the river Yarkhun to the Lingzi Thang Plains. Of this extensive area ancient *Kāśmīra* formed but a small portion. The political and geographical application of the term was ‘restricted to the great basin of the Vitastā (Jhelum) and the side valleys drained by its tributaries above the Bārāmūla defile.’ It was surrounded on all sides by a ring of high mountains, which can be conveniently divided into three main ranges. One of these, known as the Pīr Pantsāl Range, formed the southern and south-western boundary of Kashmir. It extends from the Bānªhāl Pass to the valley of the Vitastā. In Kalhaṇa's time it was inhabited by the Khaśas, the modern Khakkas, and was divided into a number of semi-independent hill states. In the south-east of this range was situated the principality of Kāṣṭhavāṭa (mod. Kishtwar), whose chiefs had practically independent power.¹ Between this state and Kangra, the ancient Trigarta, lay the hill state of Campā (mod. Chamba) whose chiefs frequently intermarried with the Lohara kings of Kashmir.² To the west of Campā was situated the small independent state of Vallāpura (mod.

v1.c13.2.2

Ballāvar).³ The ‘whole tract of the lower and middle hills between the Candrabhāgā and the Vitastā' was known in ancient times as Dārvābhisāra.¹ Generally this region was split up into a number of smaller hill states, the most considerable of which was Rājapurī (mod. Rajauri).² On the north-west of Rājapurī was situated the principality of Lohara, which included the valley now known as Lohªrin. To the west, in the lower valley of the Tauṣī (mod. Tohī) and perhaps extending up to the left banks of the Vitastā, this state was adjoined by the principality of Parṇotsa (mod. Punch).³ For the facility of communication between the Punjab and these hill states and the Kashmir valley nature had provided a number of passes through the Pīr Pantsāl Range. Of these, we have already mentioned the easternmost one, the Bānªhāl Pass, the Bāṇaśālā of Kalhaṇa' which 'owing to its small elevation (9,000 ft.) must have always been a convenient route of communication towards the upper Chenab Valley and the eastern of the Punjab Hill States.' The castle of Bāṇaśālā, which guarded this route, was in the hands of a Khaśa chief in the 12th century. 'About 8 miles straight to the west of the lake Kōnsªr Nāg the range is again crossed by a pass over 14,000 ft. high,' which under the name Siddha-patha (mod. Sidau or Būdil) is mentioned by Kalhaṇa.⁵ 'It lies on a route which in an almost straight line connects Srinagar with Akhnur and Sialkot in the Punjab plain.

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About five miles due north of the (lake) Nandan Sar' we again reach a pass now known as Pīr Pantsāl (11,400 ft.), probably the Pañcāladhārā of Kṣemendra.⁶ 'The route which crosses it, has from early days to the present time been the most frequented line of communication from Kashmir to the central part of the Punjab.’ The next considerable depression, which was also an ancient line of communication, was the Tōṣᵉmaidān Pass, which connected Srinagar with the Western Punjab, *via* Lohara. During the reign of the Lohara kings (*c.* 1003-1154 A.D.) this route acquired special importance in the history of Kashmir. Beyond this, in the north-west, the Pīr Pantsāl Range gradually descends into the Vitastā valley which was one of the great gates of Kashmir, connecting it with Uraśā (mod. Hazara), Gandhāra (mod. Rawalpindi district), and the regions to the west. It was through this route that Yuan Chwang and Ou-K'ong came to Kashmir. As the route ended in Kashmir at Varāhamūla¹ (mod. Bārāmūla) it is convenient to designate it after the name of that town. The kings of Kashmir appear to have held Vitastā valley as far as Bolyāsaka² (mod. Buliasa) as an outlying frontier district. Beyond this, up to the borders of Uraśā, the valley was known as Dvārāvatī (mod. Dvārbiḍi).³ North of Dvārāvatī in the lower valley of the Kṛṣṇā (mod. Kishen Ganga), lay the semi-independent Khaśa principality of Karṇāha (mod.

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Karnāv).⁴ Between Dvārāvatī and Karṇāha, the Kājnāg Range accompanies the Vitastā for about eighty miles down to Muzaffarabad. ‘The mountains which enclose the Kashmir valley in the north-west and north, may be looked upon as one great range.’ It ‘joins on to the Kājnāg Peak north-west of Bārāmūla and then continues in the direction of south to north towards the Upper Kishen Ganga. The watershed of this portion forms the western boundary of Kashmir towards Karṇāha.’ One important route that crossed this range near modern Sardi started from ‘the ancient districts of Samāla (mod. Hamal) and Uttara (mod. Uttar) and was guarded by the castle of Śiraḥśila.⁵ From Sardi, this range continues in a slightly south-easterly direction for about a 100 miles. The upper course of the Kṛṣṇā in this region was inhabited by the Dards, and was known as the Daraddeśa.¹ A route starting from the north of Mahāpadma (Wular Lake) crossed this northern range at Gurais on the Kishen Ganga, which is probably to be identified with Daratpurī,² the chief town of the Dards. From Gurais it leads to Astor and the Balti territory on the Indus. This route was guarded by the ancient fort of Dugdhaghāta (mod. Dudᵃkhut) which was often a bone of contention between Kashmirians and Dards.³ To the east of Dugdhaghāta the summit of the range gradually culminates in the Haramukuṭa (mod. Haramuk) peaks, round which cluster some of the holiest of Kashmirian *tīrthas*.

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Eastward from Haramukuṭa, the range which we have been following so far, meets near the head of the Sind valley, 'the great chain of snowy mountains which stretches from Mount Nangā Parvat in a south-easterly direction to the Nunkum Peaks in Sūru. A few miles south of this junction we arrive at a gap in the mountains,' which is generally known by its Ladākhi name of Zōjī-La. This pass lay on a very important route connecting the Kashmir valley with China and Tibet *via* Ladākh. The Tibetan inhabitants beyond this pass were known as the Bhauṭṭas; and Kalhaṇa probably refers to this route by his *Bhuṭṭarāṣṭrādhvan*.⁴ Through this route came the invaders in the 14th century who put an end to the Hindu rule in the valley.⁵ The Laharakoṭṭa mentioned by Jonarāja 'probably represents the old watch station of this route.'⁶ From near this pass a range of mountains, forming the eastern boundary of Kashmir ‘runs almost due south until it reaches the head waters of the Vitastā. It then turns to the north-west and at the Bānªhāl pass joins on to the Pīr Pantsāl Range.’ Towards the Chenab this range is pierced by two passes, *viz.*, the Margan and the Parbal Pass, the latter of which ‘forms the usual route towards Kāṣṭhavāṭa.’¹