Political History of Ancient India, from the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty c14.s1.t3: Chandragupta’s Government

Political History of Ancient India, from the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty c14.s1.t3

Language: English

Chandragupta’s Government

c14.s1.t3.1

Chandragupta was not only a great soldier and conqueror, he was a great administrator. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador at his court, has left detailed accounts of his system of government. The edict of his grandson Aśoka, and the *Arthaśāstra* attributed to his minister, **Kauṭilya**, confirm in many respects the particulars of the organisation of the empire given by the distinguished envoy. The *Arthaśāstra* certainly existed before Bāṇa (seventh century A.D.) and the *Nandisūtra* of the Jainas (not later than the fifth century A.D.). But it is doubtful if, in its present shape, it is as old as the time of the first Maurya. Reference to *Chīnapaṭṭa*, China silk, which, be it remembered, occurs frequently in classical Sanskrit literature, points to a later date, as China was clearly outside the horizon of the early Mauryas, and is unknown to Indian epigraphy before the Nāgārjunikoṇḍa inscriptions. Equally noteworthy is the use of Sanskrit as the official language, a feature not characteristic of the Maurya epoch. A date as late as the Gupta period is, however, precluded by the absence of any reference to the Denarius in the sections dealing with weights and coins. Quite in keeping with this view is the reference to the *Arthaśāstra* contained in Jaina canonical works that were reduced to writing in the Gupta age. We have already adduced grounds for believing that *Arthaśāstra* probably existed before the second century A.D.¹ *Though* *a comparatively late work, it may be used, like the Junāgaḍh Inscription of Rudradāman, to confirm and supplement the information gleaned from earlier sources.*

c14.s1.t3.2

¹ P. 9 f. *ante*.

c14.s1.t3.3

The **Supreme Government** consisted of two main parts :
1. The *Rājā* and
2. The "**Councillors**" and "**Assessors**" (*Mahāmātras*, and *Amātyas* or *Sachivas*).

c14.s1.t3.4

The *Rājā* or sovereign was the head of the state. He was considered to be a mere mortal, though a favoured mortal, the beloved of the deities.¹ The possession of the material resources of a great empire and control over a vast standing army gave him real power. But there was a body of **ancient rules**, *Porāṇā pakitī*, which even the most masterful despot viewed with respect. The people were an important element of the state. They were looked upon as children for whose welfare the head of the state was responsible, and to whom he owed a debt which could only be discharged by good government. There was a certain amount of decentralisation, notably in the **sphere of local government**, and there was usually at the imperial headquarters, and also at the chief centres of provincial government, a body of ministers who had a right to be consulted specially in times of emergency. Nevertheless the powers of the king were extensive. He had military, judicial, legislative, as well as executive functions. We have already seen that one of the occasions when he left his palace was **war**.² He considered plans of military operations with his *Senāpati*³ or Commander-in-Chief.

c14.s1.t3.5

¹ *Cf.* *ante* 198n 10.

c14.s1.t3.6

² *Cf.* Strabo, XV, i; and Kauṭilya Bk. X.

c14.s1.t3.7

³ Kauṭ., p. 38. In the last days of the Maurya empire we find the *Senāpati* overshadowing the king and transferring to himself the allegiance of the troops.

c14.s1.t3.8

He also sat in his court to administer justice. "He remains there all day thus occupied, not suffering himself to be interrupted even though the time arrives for attending to his person. This attention to his person consists of friction with pieces of wood, and he continues to listen to the cause, while the friction is performed by four attendants who surround him."¹ The *Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra* says,² "when in the court, he (the king) shall never cause his petitioners to wait at the door, for when a king makes himself inaccessible to his people and entrusts his work to his immediate officers, he may be sure to engender confusion in business, and to cause thereby public disaffection, and himself a prey to his enemies. He shall, therefore, personally attend to the business of gods, of heretics, of Brāhmaṇas learned in the Vedas, of cattle, of sacred places, of minors, the aged, the afflicted, the helpless and of women;—all this in order (of enumeration) or according to the urgency or pressure of those works. All urgent calls he shall hear at once."

c14.s1.t3.9

¹ H. & F., Strabo III, pp. 106-107.

c14.s1.t3.10

² Shamasastry's translation, p. 43.

c14.s1.t3.11

As to the king's legislative function we should note that the *Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra*³ calls him "*dharmo-pravartaka,*" and includes **Rājaśāsana** among the sources of law. As instances of royal "**Śāsanas**" or rescripts may be mentioned the Edicts of Aśoka, the famous grandson of Chandragupta.

c14.s1.t3.12

³ Bk, III, Chap. I,

c14.s1.t3.13

Among executive functions of the king, our authorities mentions the posting of watchmen, attending to the accounts of receipts and expenditure, appointment of ministers, priests and superintendents, correspondence with the *Mantriparishad* or Council of Ministers, collection of the secret information gathered by spies, reception of envoys, etc.¹

c14.s1.t3.14

¹ Kauṭilya, Bk. I, Ch. xvi; xvii; Bk. VIII, Ch. i. *Cf.* Aśoka's Rock Edicts III (regulation about *alpa vyayatā* and *alpa bhāṇḍatā*), V (appointment of high officials), VI (relations with the Parishad, and collection of information from the Paṭivedakā), and XIII (diplomatic relations with foreign powers).

c14.s1.t3.15

It was the king who laid down the broad lines of policy and issued rescripts for the guidance of his officers and the people. Control was maintained over the most distant officials by an army of secret reporters and overseers and, in the days of Chandragupta's grandson, by itinerant judges. Communication with them was kept up by a network of roads, and garrisons were posted at strategic points.

c14.s1.t3.16

Kauṭilya holds that *Rājatva* (sovereignty) is possible only with assistance.² A single wheel can never move. Hence the king shall employ *Sachivas* and hear their opinion. The *Sachivas* or *Amātyas* of Kauṭilya correspond to the "seventh caste" of Megasthenes which assisted the king in deliberating on public affairs. This class was small in numbers, but in wisdom and justice excelled all the others.³

c14.s1.t3.17

² *Cf.* Manu, VII. 55.

c14.s1.t3.18

³ Chinnock, *Arrian*, p. 413.

c14.s1.t3.19

The most important amongst the *Sachivas* or *Amātyas* were undoubtedly the Mantrins or High Ministers, probably corresponding to the Mahāmātras of Aśoka's Rock Edict VI and the "advisers of the king" referred to by Diodoros.⁴ They were selected from those *Amātyas* whose character had been tested under all kinds of allurements.⁵ They were given the highest salary, *viz.*, 48,000 *paṇas* per annum.⁶ They assisted the king in examining the character of the *Amātyas* who were employed in ordinary departments.¹ All kinds of administrative measures were preceded by consultation with three or four of them.² In works of emergency (*ātyayike kārye*) they were summoned along with the *Mantriparishad*.³ They exercised a certain amount of control over the Imperial Princes.⁴ They accompanied the king to the battle-field, and gave encouragement to the troops.⁵ Kauṭilya was evidently one of those *Mantrins*. Another minister (or *Pradeshṭri*?) was apparently Maniyatappo, a Jaṭilian, who helped the king to "confer the blessings of peace on the country by extirpating marauders who were like unto thorns."∗6 That there were at times more than one *Mantrin* is proved by the use of the plural *Mantrinaḥ*.

c14.s1.t3.20

⁴ II. 41.

c14.s1.t3.21

⁵ *Sarvopadhā śuddhān Mantrinaḥ kuryāt.*—*Arthaśāstra*, 1919, p 17. For *upadhā* see also the Junāgaḍh Rock Inscription of Skanda Gupta.

c14.s1.t3.22

⁶ Kauṭilya, p. 247. According to Smith (*EHI*, 4th ed., p. 149) the value of a silver *paṇa* may be taken as not far from a shilling.

c14.s1.t3.23

¹ *Ibid.*, p. 16.

c14.s1.t3.24

² *Ibid.*, pp. 26, 28.

c14.s1.t3.25

³ *Ibid.*, p. 29 *Cf.* Aśoka's Rock Edict VI.

c14.s1.t3.26

⁴ *Ibid.*, p. 333.

c14.s1.t3.27

⁵ *Ibid.*, p. 368 *Cf.* the Udayagiri Inscription of Śāba.

c14.s1.t3.28

∗6 Turnour's *Mahāvaṁsa*, p. xlii. The evidence is late.

c14.s1.t3.29

In addition to the *Mantrins* there was the **Mantriparishad**, *i.e.*, Assembly of Counsellors or Council of Ministers. The existence of the *Parishad* as an important element of the Maurya constitution is proved by the third and sixth Rock Edicts of Aśoka.⁷ The members of the *Mantriparishad* were not identical with the *Mantrins*. In several passages of Kauṭilya's *Arthaśāstra* the *Mantrins* are sharply distinguished from the *Mantriparishad*.⁸ The latter evidently occupied an inferior position. Their salary was only 12,000 *paṇas*, whereas the salary of a *Mantrin* was 48,000. They do not appear to have been consulted on ordinary occasions, but were summoned along with the Mantrins when Ātyayika kārya,¹ *i.e.*, works of emergency had to be transacted. The king was to be guided by the decision of the majority (Bhūyishṭhāḥ). They also attended the king at the time of the reception of envoys.² From the passage "*Mantripariṣadaṁ dvādaśāmātyān kurvīta*"—"the Council of Ministers should consist of twelve Amātyas," it appears that the Parishad used to be recruited from all kinds of Amātyas (not necessarily from Mantrins alone). From Kauṭilya's denunciation of a king with a "*Kshudraparishad*,"³ a small council, his rejection of the views of the Mānavas, Bārhaspatyas and the Auśanasas, his preference for an "*Akshudra-parishad*," a council that is not small, and his reference to Indra's Parishad of a thousand Ṛishis, it may be presumed that he wanted to provide for the needs of a growing empire. Such an empire was undoubtedly that of Chandragupta who may have been prevailed upon by his advisers to constitute a fairly big assembly.⁴

c14.s1.t3.30

⁷ Note also Pliny's reference to noble and rich Indians who sit in council with the king (Monahan, *The Early History of Bengal*, 148) ; *cf. Mbh.* iii, 127. 8. Amātyaparshad ; xii, 320, 139 Amatya Samiti.

c14.s1.t3.31

⁸ *Cf.* pp. 20, 29, 247.

c14.s1.t3.32

¹ *Arthaśāstra*, 29. *Cf.* *Mbh.*, iv. 30. 8. Aśoka's R. E. VI.

c14.s1.t3.33

² *Arthaśāstra*, p. 45.

c14.s1.t3.34

³ P. 259.

c14.s1.t3.35

⁴ The *Divyāvadāna* (p. 372) refers to the five hundred councillors (Pañchāmātyaśatāni) of Bindusāra, son and successor of Chandragupta Maurya. Patañjali refers to *Chandragupta Sabhā*. But we have no indication as to its constitution.

c14.s1.t3.36

Besides the Mantrins and the Mantriparishad, there was another class of Amātyas who filled the great administrative and judicial appointments.⁵ The *Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra* says⁶ that the "*dharmopadhāśuddha*" Amātyas, officers purified by religious test, should be employed in **civil**¹ and **criminal**² **courts**; the “*arthopadhāśuddha*” *Amātyas*, officers purified by money-test, should be employed as *Samāhartṛi* (“Chancellor of the Exchequer and Minister of the Interior”) and *Sannidhātṛi* (High Treasurer and Keeper of Stores;³ the “*kāmopadhāśuddha*” *Amātyas*, officials purified by love-test, should be appointed to superintend the pleasure grounds, the “*bhayopadhāśuddha*” *Amātyas*, officers purified by fear-test, should be appointed to do work requiring immediate attention (*āsanna kārya*), while those who are proved to be impure should be employed in mines, timber and elephant forests,⁴ and manufactories. Untried *Amātyas* were to be employed in ordinary or insignificant departments (*sāmānya adhikaraṇa*). Persons endowed with the qualifications required in an *Amātya* (*Amātyasampadopeta*) were appointed *Nisṛishṭārthāḥ* or Ministers Plenipotentiary, *Lekhakas* or Ministers of Correspondence, and *Adhyakshas* or Superintendents.

c14.s1.t3.37

⁵ *Cf.* the *Karma-Sachivas* of the Junāgaḍh Rock Inscription of Rudradāman I.

c14.s1.t3.38

⁶ P. 17. *Cf.* McCrindle, *Megasthenes and Arrian*, 1926, 41, 42.

c14.s1.t3.39

¹ Civil (*Dharmasthīya*) Courts were established “in the cities of *Saṅgrahana* (in the midst of a collection of ten villages), *Droṇamukha* (in the centre of four hundred villages), *Sthānīya* (in the centre of eight hundred villages), and at places where districts met (*Janapada-sandhi*;? union of districts),” and consisted of three *Dharmasthas* (judges versed in the sacred law) and three *Amātyas*.

c14.s1.t3.40

² A Criminal (*Kaṇṭakaśodhana*) Court consisted of 3 *Amātyas*, or 3 *Pradeshṭṛis*. The functions of the latter will be described later on.

c14.s1.t3.41

³ For the duties of these officers see Kauṭilya’s *Arthaśāstra*, Bk. II, 5-6, 35; Bk. IV, 4; Bk. V, 2. For the revenue system under the Mauryas, see Ghoshal, *Hindu Revenue System*, pp. 165 ff.

c14.s1.t3.42

⁴ *Cf.* *Nāgavana* of Pillar Edict V.

c14.s1.t3.43

The statements of the *Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra* regarding the employment of *Amātyas* as the chief executive and judicial officers of the realm, are confirmed by the classical writers. Strabo, for example, observes,⁵ “the seventh caste consists of counsellors and assessors (*Symbouloi* and *Synedroi*) of the king. To these persons belong the offices of state, tribunals of justice, and the whole administration of affairs." Arrian also says, "from them are chosen their rulers, governors of provinces, deputies, treasurers, generals, admirals, controllers of expenditure, and superintendents of agriculture."

c14.s1.t3.44

⁵ H. & F., Vol. III, p. 103. *Cf.* Diodoros, II. 41.

c14.s1.t3.45

The **adhyakshas** who formed the pivot of the Kauṭilīyan administration, are evidently referred to by Strabo's translators as "Magistrates" in the following passage:¹

c14.s1.t3.46

¹ One class of *Adhyakshas*, those in charge of women, are referred to in the Aśokan inscriptions as *Mahāmātras*.

c14.s1.t3.47

"Of the **Magistrates**, some have the charges of the market,² others of the city, others of the soldiery.³ Some⁴ have the care of the rivers, measure the land, as in Egypt, and inspect the closed reservoirs from which water is distributed by canals, so that all may have an equal use of it. These persons have charge also of the hunters, and have the power of rewarding or punishing those who merit either. They collect the taxes, and superintend the occupations connected with land, as wood-cutters, carpenters, workers in brass, and miners. They superintend the public roads, and place a pillar at every ten stadia to indicate the byways and distances. **Those who have charge of the city (astynomoi)** are divided into six bodies of five each.⁵ Next to the Magistrates of the city is a third body of governors, **who have the care of military affairs.** This class also consists of six divisions each composed of five persons.⁶

c14.s1.t3.48

² "District" according to the *Cambridge History of India*, I. 417.

c14.s1.t3.49

³ *Cf.* the *Durga-rāshṭra-daṇḍa-mukhyas* of Kauṭilya, Bk. XIII, Chs. III and V.

c14.s1.t3.50

⁴ *i.e.*, the district officials (**Agronomoi**).

c14.s1.t3.51

⁵ Each body was responsible for one of the following departments, *viz.*, (1) the mechanical arts, (2) foreign residents, (3) registration of births and deaths, (4) trade, commerce, weights and measures, (5) supervision and sale of manufactured articles and (6) collection of tithes on sales. In their collective capacity they looked after public buildings, markets, harbours and temples. Prices were regulated by them.

c14.s1.t3.52

⁶ Each division or Board was responsible for one of the following departments, *viz.*, the navy, transport and commissariat (*cf.* *Vishṭi karmāṇi* of Kauṭilya, Bk. X, Ch. iv), the infantry, the cavalry, the chariots and the elephants. In the *Śāntiparva* of the *Mahābhārata* the divisions are stated to be six (CIII. 38) or eight (LIX. 41-42) :

c14.s1.t3.53

The Magistrates in charge of the city and those in charge of military affairs are evidently the same as the **Nagarādhyakshas** and **Balādhyakshas** of the *Arthaśāstra*.¹ Dr. Smith remarks,² "the Boards described by Megasthenes as in charge of the business of the capital and the army are unknown to the author (Kauṭilya), who contemplated each such charge as the duty of a single officer. The creation of the Boards may have been an innovation effected by Chandragupta personally." But the historian overlooks the fact that Kauṭilya distinctly says: "*Bahumukhyaṁ anityaṁ chādhikaraṇaṁ sthāpayet*," "each department shall be officered by several temporary heads ;"³ "*Adhyakshāḥ Saṅkhyāyaka-Lekhaka-Rūpadarśaka-Nivigrāhak-Ottarādhyaksha-sakhāḥ karmāṇi kuryuḥ*, "the Superintendents shall carry on their duties with the assistance of accountants, scribes, coin-exminers, stock-takers and additional secret overseers." Evidently Dr. Smith notices only the *Adhyakshas* but ignores the existence of the *Uttarādhyakshas* and others. As in regard to the *Arthaśāstra* Smith notices only the *Adhyakshas*, so in regard to the classical accounts he takes note only of the

c14.s1.t3.54

¹ Mysore Ed., 1919, p. 55. **Nagara-Dhānya-Vyāvahārika-Kārmāntika-Baladhyakshāḥ**. *Cf.* *Balapradhānā* and *Nigamapradhānāḥ* of Mbh., V. 2. 6.

c14.s1.t3.55

² *EHI*, 1914, p. 141. *Cf.* Monahan, *Early History of Bengal*, pp. 157 61, Stein, *Megasthenes und Kauṭilya*, pp. 233 ff.

c14.s1.t3.56

³ *Arthaśāstra*, 1919, p. 60. On page 57 we have the following passage—**Hasty-aśva-ratha-padātam-aneka-mukhyam-avasthāpayet**, *i.e.*, elephants, cavalry, chariots, and infantry shall each be placed under many chiefs.

c14.s1.t3.57

*Rathā Nāgā Hayāśchaiva Pādātāśchaiva Pāṇḍava*
*Vishṭir Nāvaś Charāśchaiva Deśikā iti chāshṭamam*
*Aṅgānyetāni Kauravya prakāśāni balasya tu*

c14.s1.t3.58

"Chariots, elephants, horses, infantry burden-carriers, ships, spies with local guides as the eighth—these are the open "limbs" of a fighting force, O descendant of Kuru." The *Raghuvaṁśa* IV, 26) refers to *Shaḍvidham balam*. *Cf.* Mbh. V. 96. 16.

c14.s1.t3.59

Boards, but ignores the chiefs who are expressly mentioned in two passages,¹ *viz.*—

c14.s1.t3.60

¹ H. & F., Strabo, III, p. 101.

c14.s1.t3.61

“One division is associated with the *Chief Naval Superintendent*,” “another (division) is associated with the *person who has the charge of the bullock-teams*.” The Chief Naval Superintendent and the Person in Charge of the Bullock-teams, doubtless, correspond to the *Nāvadhyaksha* and the *Go’dhyaksha* of the *Arthaśāstra*. It is a mistake to think that the *Nāvadhyaksha* of the early Hindu period was a purely civil official, for he was responsible for the destruction of *Hiṁsrikās* (pirate ships?) and the *Mahābhārata*² clearly refers to the navy as one of the *aṅgas* or limbs of the Royal Forces. The civil duties of the *Nāvadhyaksha* have their counterpart in those of Megasthenes’ Admiral relating to the “letting out of ships on hire for the transport both of passengers and merchandize.”³

c14.s1.t3.62

² XII. lix, 41-42.

c14.s1.t3.63

³ Strabo, XV, 1. 46.

c14.s1.t3.64

Central popular assemblies like those that existed among the Lichchhavis, Mallas, Śākyas and other *Saṅghas* had no place in the Maurya constitution. The custom of summoning a great assembly of Grāmikas or Village Headmen seems also to have fallen into disuse. The royal council gradually became an aristocratic body attended only by nobles and rich men.⁴

c14.s1.t3.65

⁴ Pliny quoted in Monahan’s *Early History of Bengal*, 148.

Cites (6)

Mahābhārata — Sanskrit
Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Divyāvadāna — Sanskrit
Nandī — Devavācaka, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Raghuvaṃśa — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit