Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire (A.D. 1346 – A.D. 1646) v2.c18.s3.t2: B. Description
Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire (A.D. 1346 – A.D. 1646) v2.c18.s3.t2
- Language
- English
Contents
- v2.c18.s3.t2.1 — 4 parts
- v2.c18.s3.t2.7 — 3 parts
- v2.c18.s3.t2.21 — 4 parts
B. Description
v2.c18.s3.t2.1.1
Duarte Barbosa gives us a vivid picture of sati in the first half of the sixteenth century. He speaks of the three classes of people in the Hindu Empire, each with "a very distinct rule of its own", and while describing the "principal of these" to which "the King, the great Lords, the knights and fighting men" belonged, he says: "...their sons inherit their estates: the women are bound by very ancient custom, when their husbands die, to burn themselves alive with their corpses, which are also burnt. This they do to honour the husband. If such a woman is poor and of low estate, when her husband dies she goes with him to the burning ground, 'where there is a great pit' in which a pile of wood burns. When the husband's body has been laid therein, and begins to burn, she throws herself of her own free will into the midst of the said fire, where both their bodies are reduced to ashes. But if she is a woman of high rank, rich, and with distinguished kindred, whether she be a young maid or an old woman, when her husband dies she accompanies the aforesaid corpse of her husband to the aforesaid burning ground, bewailing him; and there they dig a round pit, very wide and deep, which they fill with wood (and a great quantity of sandal wood therewith), and when they have kindled it, they lay the man's body therein, and it is burnt while she weeps greatly.
v2.c18.s3.t2.1.2
Wishing to do all honour to her husband she then causes all his kindred and her own to be called together, that they may come to feast and honour her thereby, all of whom gather together at the said field for this ceremony, where she spends with them and with her kindred and friends all that she has in festivities with music and singing and dancing and banquets. Thereafter she attires herself very richly with all the jewels she possesses, and then distributes to her sons, relatives and friends all the property that remains. Thus arrayed she mounts on a horse, light grey or quite white if possible, that she may be the better seen of all the people. Mounted on this horse they lead her through the whole city with great rejoicings, until they come back to the very spot where the husband has been burnt, where, they cast a great quantity of wood into the pit itself and on its edge they make a great fire. When it has burnt up somewhat they erect a wooden scaffold with four or five steps where they take her up just as she is. When she is on the top she turns round thereon three times, worshipping towards the direction of sunrise, and this done, she calls her sons, kindred and friends, and to each gives a jewel, whereof she has many with her, and in the same way every piece of her clothing until nothing is left except a small piece of cloth with which she is clothed from the waist down.
v2.c18.s3.t2.1.3
All this she does and says so firmly, and with such a cheerful countenance, that she seems not about to die. Then she tells the men who are with her on the scaffold to consider what they owe to their wives who, being free to act, yet burn themselves alive for the love of them, and the women she tells to see how much they owe to their husbands, to such a degree as to go with them even to death. Then she ceases speaking, and they place in her hands a pitcher, full of oil, and she puts it on her head, and with it she again turns round thrice on the scaffold and again worships towards the rising sun. Then she casts the pitcher of oil into the fire and throws herself after it with as much good will as if she were throwing herself on a little cotton, from which she could receive no hurt. The kinsfolk all take part at once and cast into the fire many pitchers of oil and butter with which they hold ready for this purpose, and much wood on this, and therewith bursts out such a flame that no more can be seen. The ashes that remain after these ceremonies are thrown into running streams. All this they do in general without any hindrance ; as it is the custom of all.
v2.c18.s3.t2.1.4
They who do not so, they hold in great dishonour, and their kindred shave their heads and turn them away as disgraced and a shame to their families...This abominable practice of burning is so customary, and is held in such honour among them, that when the King dies, four or five hundred women burn themselves with him in this way, for which they make the pit and the fire to such a size that they can hold any number who may wish to throw themselves in ; and for this too they keep ready great store of sanders-wood, eagle-wood, brazil-wood, and also of gingelly oil and butter to make the fire burn better. Some of these women throw themselves in suddenly while the king is burning, others with the ceremonies I have just described, and such is the rush as to who shall be burnt with him that it is a frightful thing ".¹
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¹⁸⁵ seq. (Rev. ed. 1896); Thomas Bowrey, Countries Round the Bay of Bengal, p. 38; Jahangir's India—The Remonstrantie of Francisco Pelsaert pp. 78-90 (Trans. by Moreland—Geyl, 1925). A most recent contribution on the subject is by Mr. E. Thompson Suttee (London, 1928).
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¹ Barbosa, Dames, I, pp. 212-16; Stanley, pp. 91-3. Nicolo dei Conti in the first half of the fifteenth century, also gives an account of sati. Major, India, pp. 6, 24. It "probably also refers to Vijayanagar, although it is not expressly mentioned". Dames, ibid., p. 213, n (1).
v2.c18.s3.t2.4
Before we proceed with the accounts of other foreign travellers, we may estimate the value of Duarte Barbosa's narrative on the strength of his own evidence. His description is so realistic that one may accept it as genuine but for the fact that it contains certain inconsistencies. In one place he says that it was a very ancient custom which compelled the women to perform sati : " the women are bound by very ancient custom, when their husbands die, to burn themselves alive with their corpses which are also burnt"; and then he presently adds, "she throws herself of her own free will into the midst of the said fire ", suggesting thereby that there was some element of option that was allowed to the unfortunate women of the times. This latter idea is strengthened by Barbosa's other statement that "she does and says so firmly, and with such a cheerful countenance, that she seems not about to die". Evidently the women of Vijayanagara, victims as they were of an age-long orthodoxy and priest-craft, could put death to shame by assuming a cheerful countenance on such an awful occasion. This is, however, a point on which there may be a plurality of opinion. But Barbosa contradicts himself in his assertions. In one passage he tells us that sati was confined to the caste to which the King, the great lords, the knights and fighting men belonged; but at the end of his description he asserts that "it is the custom of all". As related elsewhere, the king, the lords, the fighting men and the knights of Vijayanagara never belonged to one class.¹ Moreover Barbosa assures us that this custom did not prevail among the Brahmans and the Jangamas or Lingāyats, nor among the Cheṭṭis.² Consequently, it could not have been the custom of all.
v2.c18.s3.t2.5
¹ Cf. Dames, "The three classes into which Barbosa divides the Hindus do not correspond with the actual caste division, but are such as would be likely to strike an observer from Europe, viz, the King and nobility, secondly, the Brahmans and thirdly the members of the Lingāyat sect, which was very important at Vijayanagar." Barbosa, I, p. 212, n. (3).
v2.c18.s3.t2.6
² Barbosa, II, p. 73, op. cit.
v2.c18.s3.t2.7.1
There is one more consideration against Barbosa. From his description of the sati performed by the wives and queens of the Vijayanagara king, it appears that he witnessed personally one of those sad events. For he gives us the number of women who died with the king—four or five hundred; he speaks of the great pit and huge fire that was lit in it; and he says that "Some of these women throw themselves in suddenly while the king is burning, others with the ceremonies I have just described, and such is the rush as to who shall be burnt with him that it is a frightful thing". Now, we may be permitted to repeat one or two statements we made while describing the country in general. Duarte Barbosa "was in the service of the Portuguese Government in India from about 1500 till about 1516 or 1517".³ He gives us no date in his own writings,⁴ and it is difficult, if not impossible, to find out when he was in Vijayanagara. We know that his book was completed in A.D. 1517-18.⁵ Between the years when he is said to have visited India, two Vijayanagara monarchs had died—Sāḷuva Nṛisiṁha (A.D. 1496-1506) and Vīra Narasiṁha (A.D. 1504-9). The fact that Barbosa has not a word to say about either of these monarchs suggests that he may not have visited Vijayanagara till after the death of Vīra Narasiṁha in A.D. 1509. This supposition of ours is borne out by the statement of Barbosa about the wars which the ruler of Vijayanagara waged against the neighbouring states.
v2.c18.s3.t2.7.2
"This king of Narsyngua is offtimes at war with the King of Daquem and the King of Otisa (who is another Heathen king), which is also situated in the interior; and all these do one another all the injury they can".¹ The rulers referred to here are, of course, the Muhammadan Sultans of the Deccan and the king of Orissa. Fragmentary as the evidence for the reign of Sāḷuva Nṛisiṁha is, we may admit that that powerful king may have been at war with the "King of Daquen and the King of Otisa", especially when we know that shortly after A. D. 1489 in order to aid Qāsim Barīd of Ahmadabad against Yūsūf Ādil Khān of Bijapur, he seized the two important strongholds of Mudkul and Raichur.² Further, Rājanātha Diṇḍima in his *Sāḷuvābhyudayam* informs us that Sāḷuva Nṛisiṁha marched against Kaliṅga, besieged the capital, and compelled its ruler to surrender. Then, again, the same writer tells us that the Vijayanagara ruler at the instance of a chief who is called Kuṭavāchalēndraṭaṭavāsin, invaded Nāgamaṇḍala, stationed a garrison there, and while desiring to conquer Pṛithugiri, he was attacked by a Muhammadan army. He won a complete victory over the Muhammadans and justified his titles *Dharaṇīvarāha* and *Sāḷuvēndra*.³ According to Rājanātha Diṇḍima, who was the court poet of Sāḷuva Nṛisiṁha, the latter undertook his expedition against Kaliṅga soon after his coronation.⁴ We know that Sāḷuva Nṛisiṁha came to the throne in A.D. 1496.
v2.c18.s3.t2.7.3
We may allow two or three years for this campaign, and place the event in A. D. 1498 or 1499. Barbosa could never have been in the Hindu capital while the ruler undertook a war against the "King of Otisa", for the earliest date given to Barbosa is, as related above, A.D. 1500. There is one more point which we may note in this connection. Rāja-nātha, in spite of the fact that he describes the conventional tour of his royal master to Benares (Kāśi), does not mention anywhere the Sultans of the Deccan in the course of his narrative. These significant details make it impossible for one to believe that the ruler referred to by Barbosa could have been Sāḷuva Nṛisiṃha. As regards Vira Narasimha, it is not impossible that affairs at the capital were too engrossing to allow him to think of extending his frontiers in the north. We come now to Kṛiṣhṇa Dēva Rāya, who, as is well known, led his campaigns against the Sultans of the Deccan and the king of Orissa. The ruler mentioned by Barbosa has, therefore, rightly been identified with Kṛiṣhṇa Dēva Rāya.¹ This monarch ruled from A. D. 1509 to 1529.² We conclude, therefore, that Barbosa could not have any opportunity of witnessing the death of a Vijayanagara king who waged wars against the "King of Daquen and the King of Otisa"—in or about A. D. 1509 or A. D. 1514.³
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³ Dames, *Barbosa*, I, Intr. *ibid*, p. xxxiii. See *ante* Volume I., Chapter II., p. 43.
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⁴ Sewell, *For. Emp.*, p. 128 n, (1).
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⁵ Dames, *ibid*, I, p. xlv. According to Barbosa's own Preface as given in Stanley, he finished writing his book in A.D. 1516. Preface Sewell, *ibid*., p. 128, n. (1).
v2.c18.s3.t2.11
¹ Barbosa, Dames, I., pp. 223-4.
v2.c18.s3.t2.12
² Sewell, *For. Emp.*, p. 113.
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³ *Sāḷuvābhyudayam*, The Sources, pp. 91, 94, 98.
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⁴ Ibid., pp. 93-4.
v2.c18.s3.t2.15
¹ *Barbosa*, Dames, I, p. 223, n. (1).
v2.c18.s3.t2.16
² *Rice*, *My. and Coorg*, p. 118.
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³ Barbosa left India in A.D. 1516. or 1517 Dames, I, p. 223, n. (1) op. cit. Stanley says that Barbosa was an eye-witness: "Though Suttee has been so often described, the account of it in these possess much interest and novelty, probably from having been written by an eye-witness, before that institution was disturbed by European influence". Preface, pp. x-xi.
v2.c18.s3.t2.18
This rather lengthy digression into the veracity of the account of Barbosa helps us to understand the narrative of Fernao Nuniz. "This kingdom of Bisanaga is all heathen. The women have the custom of burning themselves when their husbands die, and hold it an honour to do so. When their husbands die they mourn with their relations and those of their husbands, but they hold that the wife who weeps beyond measure has no desire to go in search of her husband; and the mourning finished their relations speak to them, advising them to burn themselves and not to dishonour their generations. After that, it is said, they place the dead man on a bed with a canopy of branches and covered with flowers, and they put the woman on the back of a worthless horse,¹ and she goes after them with many jewels on her, and covered with roses ; she carries a mirror in her hand and in the other a branch of flowers, and (she goes accompanied by) many kinds of music, and his relations (go with her) with much pleasure. A man goes also playing on a small drum, and he sings songs to her telling her that she is going to join her husband, and she answers also in singing that so she will do. As soon as she arrives at the place where they are always burned she waits with the musicians till her husband is burned, whose body they place in a very large pit that has been made ready for it, covered with much firewood. Before they light the fire his mother or his nearest relative takes a vessel of water on the head and a firebrand in the hand, and goes three times round the pit, and at each round makes a hole in the pot ; and when these three rounds are done breaks the pot, which is small, and throws the torch into the pit. Then they apply the fire, and when the body is burned comes the wife with all the feasters and washes her feet, and then a Brahman performs over her certain ceremonies according to their law ; and when he has finished doing this, she draws off with her own hand all the jewels that she wears, and divides them among her female relatives, and if she has sons she commends them to her most honoured relatives. When they have taken off all she has on, even her good clothes, they put on her some common yellow cloths, and her relatives take her hand and she takes a branch in the other, and goes singing and running to the pit where the fire is, and then mounts on some steps which are made high up by the pit. Before they do this they go three times round the fire, and then she mounts the steps and holds in front of her a mat that prevents her from seeing the fire. They throw into the fire a cloth containing rice, and another in which they carry betel leaves, and her comb and mirror with which she adorned herself, saying that all these are needed to adorn herself by her husband's side. Finally she takes leave of all, and puts a pot of oil on her head, and casts herself into the fire with such courage that it is a thing of wonder ; and as soon as she throws herself in, the relatives are ready with firewood and quickly cover her with it, and after this is done, they all raise loud lamentations. When a captain dies, however many wives he has they all burn themselves, and when the King dies they do the same,"¹
v2.c18.s3.t2.19
¹ Read a note on this by Dames, *Barbosa*, I, p. 214, n. (1).
v2.c18.s3.t2.20
¹ Sewell, *For. Emp.*, pp. 391-3. As regards the account of Nuniz, the following might be observed: "It (i.e. Barbosa's narrative) may be compared with the similar description given by Fernão Nuniz which agrees with it in so many details as to make it probable that Nuniz had seen a manuscript of Barbosa's work". Dames, *Barbosa*, I, p. 213, n. (1). But the difference between the two accounts is in the following: Barbosa speaks of a light grey or quite white horse; Nuniz writes about a worthless horse. Barbosa makes a woman who is going to commit sati give a speech; Nuniz is silent about it. Barbosa speaks of a pitcher full of oil; Nuniz also mentions this detail but adds a mirror and flowers. Neither of these travellers has anything to say about the inexplicable lemon carried by a woman. But, as we shall see, a later traveller observed this detail. B.A.S.
v2.c18.s3.t2.21.1
There is another eye-witness who has left to us an account of sati. Caesar Frederick (A. D. 1567) writes thus : " And in the time I rested there (Vijayanagara City) I saw many strange and beastly deeds done by the Gentiles. First, when there is any noble man or woman dead, they burne their bodies : and if a married man or woman die, his wife must burne herself alive, for the love of her husband, and with the body of her husband : so that when any man dyeth, his wife will take a month's leave, two or three, or as shee will, to burne herself in, and that day being come, wherein she ought to be burnt, that morning she goeth out of her house very carely, either on Horseback or an Elephant, or else is borne by eight men on a small stage : in one of these orders shee goeth, being apparelled like to a Bride, carried round about the Citie, with her hair down about her shoulders, garnished with Jewels and Flowers, according to the estate of the party, and they go with as great joy as Brides doe in Venice to their Nuptials : she carrieth in her left hand a looking-glasse, and in her right-hand an arrow, and singeth through the Citie as she passeth, and saith, that she goeth to sleepe with her deere spouse and husband.
v2.c18.s3.t2.21.2
She is accompanied with her kindred and friends untill it be one or two of the clocke in the afternoone, then they goe out of the Citie, and going along the Rivers side called Nigondin (Āneguṇḍi), which runneth under the walls of the Citie, untill they come unto a place where they use to make this burning of Women, being widdowes, there is prepared in this place a great square Cave, with a little pinnacle hard by it, foure or five steps up : the aforesaid Cave is full of dryed wood. The woman being come thither, accompanied with a great number of people which come to see the thing, then they make ready a great banquet, and she that shall be burned eateth with as great joy and gladnesse, as though it were her Wedding day: and the feast being ended, then they goe to dancing and singing a certaine time, according as she will. After this, the woman of her own accord, commandeth them to make the fire in the square Cave where the drie wood is, and when it is kindled, they come and certifie her thereof, then presently she leaveth the feast, and taketh nearest kinsman of her husband by the hand, and they both goe together to the banks of the aforesaid River, where she putteth off all her jewels and all her clothes, and giveth them to her parents or kinsfolke, and covering herself with a cloth, because shee will not bee seene of the people being naked, she throweth herselfe into the River, saying: O wretches, wash away your sinnes.
v2.c18.s3.t2.21.3
Comming out of the water, she rowleth herselfe into a yellow cloth of fourteen braces long : and againe she taketh her husbands kinsman by the hand, and they goe both together up to the pinnacle of the square Cave, where the fire is made. When shee is on the pinnacle, she talketh and reasoneth with the people, recommending unto them her children and kindred. Before the pinnacle they use to set a Mat, because they shall not see the fierceness of the fire, yet there are many that will have them plucked away, shewing therein an heart not fearfull, and that they are not affraid of that sight. When this silly woman has reasoneth with the people a good while to her content there is another woman that taketh a pot with oyle, and sprinkleth it over her head, and with the same shee annointeth all her body, and afterwards throweth the pot into the fornace, and both the woman and the pot goe together into the fire, and presently the people that are round about the fornace throw after her into the cave great pieces of wood, so by this meanes, with the fire and with the blowes that shee hath with the wood throwen after her, she is quickly dead, and after this there groweth such sorrow and such lamentation among the people, that all their mirth is turned into howling and weeping, in such wise, that a man should scarce beare the hearing of it.
v2.c18.s3.t2.21.4
I have seene many burnt in this manner, because my house was neere to the gate where they goe out at the place of burning : and when there dyeth any Great Man, his wife with all his slaves with whom hee hath had carnall copulation, burne themselves together with him".¹
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¹ Caesar Frederick, Purchas, Pilgrims, X, pp. 94-6.
v2.c18.s3.t2.23
John Huighen Van Linschoten in A. D. 1583 wrote thus : "When the Bramenes die, all their friends assemble together, and make a hole in the ground, wherein they throwe much wood and other things : and if the man bee of any great account, they cast in sweet Sanders, and other Spices, with Rice, Corne, and such like, and much Oyle, because the fire should burn stronger. Which done, they lay the dead Bramenes in it : then commeth his wife with musike and many of her neerest friends all singing certaine praises in commendation of her husbands life, putting her in comfort, and encouraging her to follow her husband, and goe with him into the other world. Then shee taketh all her Jewels, and parteth them among her friends, and so with a cheerfull countenance, she leapeth into the fire, and is presently covered with Wood and Oyle : so shee is quickly dead, and with her Husbands body burned to ashes..."²
v2.c18.s3.t2.24
² Linschoten, Purchas, ibid., pp. 256-7, Cf. Metthwold, who gives a singular reason why sati was in fashion in India. "It is amongst these Indians a received history that there was a time when wives were
v2.c18.s3.t2.25
Barradas narrates the events that happened in A. D. 1614 on the death of Veṅkaṭapati Rāya I : "Three days later the King died at the age of sixty-seven years. His body was burned in his own garden with sweet scented woods, sandals, aloes, and such like ; and immediately afterwards three queens burned themselves, one of whom was of the same age as the King, and the other two aged thirty-five years. They showed great courage. They went forth richly dressed with many jewels and gold ornaments and precious stones, and arriving at the funeral pyre they divided these, giving some to their relatives, some to the Brahmans to offer prayers for them, and throwing some to be scrambled for by the people. Then they took leave of all, mounted on to a lofty place, and threw themselves into the middle of the fire, which was very great. Thus they passed into eternity ".¹ Floris confirms him in his statement that the three queens of Veṅkaṭapati committed sati. Floris writes thus : "On the five and twentieth came the newes of the death of Wencatadrapa King of Velur, after his fiftie yeares raigne, and that this three wives (of whom Obyama Queene of Paleocatte was one) had burned themselves quickly with the Corps "².
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¹ Sewell, *For. Emp.*, p. 224.
v2.c18.s3.t2.27
² Floris, Purchas, *Pilgrims*, III., p. 338.
v2.c18.s3.t2.28
Pietro della Valle is the only traveller who mentions the lemon held by a woman ready to die. He speaks of the affairs at Ikkēri in A. D. 1623. "As we return'd home at night we met a Woman in the City of *Ikkeri*, who, her husband being dead, was resolv'd to burn herself, as 'tis the custom with many Indian Women. She rode on Horse-back about the City with face uncover'd, holding a Looking-glass in one hand and a Lemon in the other, I know not for what purpose ; and
v2.c18.s3.t2.29
generally so luxurious (immoral) that, to make way for their friends, they would poyson their husbands ; which to prevent a law was made that, the husbands dead, the wives should accompany them in the same fire, and this law stands yet in force in the Iland of Baly not far from Java". *Relations of Golconda*, p. 28. Metthwold gives us a detailed description of sati. pp. 28-9. This explanation savours much of the Portuguese profligacy spoken of elsewhere in this treatise, and whatever may be the truth as regards its antiquity in other lands (see Thompson, *Suttee*, p. 44), it is not applicable to India. B.A.S.
v2.c18.s3.t2.30
beholding herself in the Glass, with a lamentable tone sufficiently pitiful to hear, went along I know not whither, speaking or singing, certain words which I understood not; but they told me they were a kind of Farewell to the World and herself; and indeed, being uttered with that passionateness which the Case requir'd and might produce they mov'd pity in all that heard them, even in us who understood not the Language. She was follow'd by many other Women and Men on foot, who, perhaps, were her Relations; they carry'd a great Umbrella over her, as all Persons of quality in *India* are wont to have, thereby to keep off the Sun, whose heat is hurtful and troublesome. Before her certain Drums were sounded, whose noise she never ceas'd to accompany with her sad Ditties, or Songs; yet with a calm and constant Countenance, without tears, evidencing more grief for her Husband's death than her own, and more desire to go with him in the other world than regret for her own departure out of this: a custom, indeed, cruel and barbarous, but withall of great generosity and virtue in such Women and therefore worthy of no small praise. They said she was to pass in the manner about the City I know not how many dayes, at the end of which she was to go out of the City and be burnt, with more company and solemnity. If I can know when it will be I will not fail to go to see her and by my presence honor her Funeral with that compassionate affection with such great Conjugal Fidelity and Love seem to me to deserve".¹ Pietro della Valle's opinion about sati is in striking contrast to that expressed by the other foreign travellers. His judgment is more balanced and interesting than that of the eye-witnesses of *sahagamana* of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
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¹ Pietro della Valle, *Travels*, II, pp. 266-7. Grey has had some remarks to make about the lemon. *Ibid*, p. 266, n. (1).