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The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c19.s1: Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khalji, 1290-1296

The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c19.s1

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Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khalji, 1290-1296

Early career

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Malik Firoz was a Turk of the Khalji tribe. His ancestors, after having migrated from Turkistan, had lived for over 200 years in the Helmand valley and Lamghan, parts of Afghanistan called *Garmasir* or the hot region, and had adopted some Afghan manners and customs. They were, therefore, wrongly looked upon as Afghans by the Turkish nobles in India. Firoz’s family had migrated to our country and taken up service under the Turkish Sultans of Delhi. Firoz had risen to the important position of *sar-i-jandar*, that is, the head of the royal bodyguard, and was, subsequently, appointed governor of Samana. He was a very able soldier and, as a governor of the frontier province of Samana, had fought a number of engagements against the Mongol invaders and repelled them. He had thus acquired reputation as a successful soldier and administrator. He was, consequently, given the title of Shaista Khan. On the death of Malik Tuzaki he was promoted to the high office of army minister by Kaiqubad. Besides being a minister at the court of Delhi, Firoz was also the head of the large Khalji clan whose members were scattered all over Hindustan. A section of this tribe had ruled Bangal since the time of Ikhtiyar-ud-din bin Bakhtiyar Khalji. At the time of his promotion to ministership, he was probably the most experienced and powerful Turkish nobleman in Delhi.

His accession

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It has already been related that there was little sympathy between the new army minister, Malik Firoz, and the orthodox Turkish party at the court headed by Malik Aitemar (Kachhan) and Malik Surkha, who held the important posts of *amir-i-hajib* and *barbak* and, as such, wielded supreme power at Delhi. These two Turkish nobles planned to get rid of Firoz and all other non-Turkish officers in order to re-assert the Turkish monopoly of power. This led to a conflict between the parties, from which Firoz emerged victorious. Kachhan was put to death, his partisans were terrorised and Malik Firoz set himself up as a regent of the infant king, Kayumars. The next step was to put both Kaiqubad and Kayumars to death and seize power. This accomplished, Firoz ascended the throne at Kilokhari, the palace built by Kaiqubad, in March 1290, and assumed the title of Sultan Jalal-ud-din Firoz.

His unpopularity

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The new king was an old man of seventy years. Inspite of having enjoyed the reputation of a seasoned and successful general who had guarded the north-western frontier of the kingdom throughout Kaiqubad's reign, Jalal-ud-din was very unpopular among the nobles and the people of Delhi. The main cause of his unpopularity with the proud Turks was the erroneous belief that the Khaljis were non-Turks and hence not entitled to share power with the Turks. For about eighty-four years the *Ilbari* Turks had occupied the throne of Delhi and, in their eyes, and also in those of the people, it was improper that the crown should have gone to one who did not belong to this race. Thirdly, Jalal-ud-din Firoz was an old man and had, therefore, some peculiarities due to age. He was, moreover, known to be very mild and generous and did not possess that dignity and grace which were supposed to be indispensable in a monarch. Fourthly, if not Firoz himself, at least his followers, particularly the young Khaljis, were known to be highly ambitious. They were, therefore, looked at with suspicion. For these reasons the new reign was unpopular, and Firoz dared not crown himself in Balban's palace at Delhi. He chose the unfinished palace of Kaiqubad at Kilokhari for the coronation ceremony. He lived there for about a year and instructed his courtiers and followers to build for themselves houses around the palace. He completed Kaiqubad's unfinished palace. Within a short time Kilokhari became an important town in the vicinity of Delhi. Firoz was not only unpopular with the old nobility but some of his own followers, specially the more vigorous and restless among them, did not like his generosity and weakness. The old Sultan followed the policy of minimum interference with the administrative arrangements and allowed older officers to remain in possession of their posts and emoluments. Young Khalji warriors who were looking forward to be appointed to top-ranking positions carrying power, prestige and remuneration, felt disgusted. Some of them charged him with senility and dotage, pronounced him unfit for the throne and wanted to remove him and elevate one of their own number to the throne. His own nephew and son-in-law, Ala-ud-din, became the leader of this disgruntled party.

Domestic policy

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Firoz's policy was not to bring about any radical change in the administrative personnel of his government. He confirmed the Turkish nobles in the offices that they had held during the last reign. Malik Chhajju, the nephew of Balban and the sole survivor of the latter's family, was allowed to retain the governorship of Kara Manikpur. Malik Fakhr-ud-din was confirmed as the kotwal of Delhi. He elevated his own sons to high rank. The eldest, Mahmud, was given the title of Khan-i-Khan. The second became Arkali Khan and the third was entitled Qadr Khan. The Sultan's younger brother was ennobled as Yaghrus Khan and was appointed army minister, that is, *ariz-i-mamalik*. Both his nephews, Ala-ud-din and Almas Beg, were similarly rewarded, and Malik Ahmad Chap, a near relative, was appointed *amir-i-hajib*, that is, master of ceremonies.

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Firoz's internal policy was one of conciliation. He tried to be peaceful, merciful and humane and wanted to rule, if possible, without bloodshed. He was anxious not to come into clash with the old nobility or with the citizens of Delhi. That was why he did not take up his residence in the old city for about a year. When, however, he accepted the invitation of the citizens of the capital, headed by kotwal Fakhr-ud-din, he dismounted in front of Balban's Red Palace and wept before entering the throne-room. He did not take his seat on the throne as he had stood many a time, he said, before it when he was a mere noble and courtier.

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Malik Chhajju raised the standard of revolt at Kara Manikpur in the second year of Firoz's reign. He assumed the title of Sultan and was joined by Hatim Khan, governor of Awadh. Their united armies proceeded against Delhi. Firoz marched out to meet them. An advance guard of his army under his son, Arkali Khan, encountered the rebels near Badaun and defeated them. Malik Chhajju was taken prisoner and was brought before the Sultan who wept at the high-born prisoner in fetters. He ordered Malik Chhajju and his followers to be released and then entertained them at a wine party. He openly praised Chhajju's followers for their loyalty to the only heir of their deceased master, Balban. The young Khalji officers, headed by the outspoken Ahmad Chap, protested against this kind of silly talk which, he rightly said, was an incitement to rebellion. Firoz replied that he did not like to kill a single Muslim for the sake of a transitory kingdom. Malik Chhajju was delivered to the custody of Arkali Khan who was appointed to the government of Multan. Kara Manikpur was now given to Ala-ud-din, the Sultan’s nephew.

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Firoz sometimes carried his policy of leniency to excess. A number of thags or robbers were arrested at Delhi. One of these furnished information which led to the arrest of a thousand people belonging to this fraternity. Firoz, however, did not inflict any punishment on this gang. He embarked them in boats and sent them by water to Bangal where they were set free at his orders. There is, however, one instance on record of Firoz’s departure from his policy of leniency. A religious leader, named Sidi Maula, who was a disciple of Shaikh Farid-ud-din Ganj-i-Shakar of Pak-Pattan (Ajudhan), was believed to have been an aspirant for the throne. He had a large number of followers whom he used to entertain in a most lavish manner. There was a plot to marry a daughter of the late Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud to Sidi Maula and then to raise him to the throne. Some of the nobles of Firoz’s court became privy to the conspiracy. The Sultan had, therefore, Sidi Maula and his chief disciples arrested and brought before him. He lost temper in a controversy with the Maula and had him murdered in his presence. A fanatic Muslim, who was opposed to this sect, slashed Sidi Maula several times with a razor and stabbed him with a packing needle. His body was trampled under foot by an elephant. The death of the saint was followed by a dust-storm and a severe famine caused by the failure of seasonal rains. It was superstitiously believed by the people that these were due to the curse of the deceased saint on the Sultan. The famine, in fact, was so severe that the price of grain rose to one *jital* per *seer* and a large number of people drowned themselves in the Yamuna.

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Firoz Khalji did not indulge in aggressive warfare. He conducted only two expeditions, none of which proved to be very successful. The first expedition was directed against Ranthambhor, led by the Sultan in person in 1290. The Chauhan ruler of the fortress of Ranthambhor offered a stout resistance. Firoz, finding himself unequal to the task, gave up the campaign and returned to Delhi. He comforted himself with the argument that he valued each hair of a Muslim's head more than a hundred such fortresses as Ranthambhor. The only advantage that the king gained in the campaign was the occupation of the district of Jhain, where he destroyed the temples and broke the images to pieces. The next expedition was undertaken against Mandawar which had once belonged to Delhi, but had been recovered by the Rajputs. It was recaptured in 1292.

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Two more expeditions were undertaken during his reign—not by the Sultan, but by his nephew, Ala-ud-din, who, in 1292, invaded Malwa and captured the town of Bhilsa which was probably allowed to remain in native hands. At this place he acquired a huge plunder. Here he heard stories of the great southern kingdom of Devagiri and its fabulous wealth, and his imagination was fired by the ambition of conquering southern India. On return, Ala-ud-din was promoted to the governorship of Awadh in addition to that of Kara. Ala-ud-din's next expedition was undertaken in 1294 against the king of Devagiri, Rama Chandra Deva, whom he defeated. He brought from Devagiri a huge booty amounting to many thousand pounds of gold, pearls, gems and silver and one thousand pieces of silk cloth.

The ‘New Muslims’

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The kingdom of Delhi was disturbed in Firoz's reign by a Mongol invasion. A huge Mongol army, said to be one lakh fifty thousand strong, under the command of a grandson of Hulagu, invaded the Panjab in 1292 and advanced as far as the town of Sunam. Sultan Firoz showed great activity and marched quickly to encounter the invader on whom he inflicted a severe defeat. The Mongols made peace. Their army was permitted to retreat peacefully. One of the descendants of Changiz Khan, named Ulugh, entered Firoz's service, embraced Islam and settled down in Delhi. Firoz gave a daughter in marriage to him. He and his followers became known as the ‘New Muslims’.

The death of Jalal-ud-din

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During the absence of Ala-ud-din from Kara some of the officers of the Sultan tried to convince the latter that Ala-ud-din was an extremely ambitious youth and had his eye on the throne; he shouldtherefore, be suppressed in time. The Sultan, whose credulity was encouraged by the smooth words of Ulugh Khan, Ala-ud-din's brother, declared that there was no reason why Ala-ud-din should be inordinately ambitious when he loved him as a son and was prepared to do everything for him. Ulugh Khan persuaded the Sultan to believe that Ala-ud-din was anxious to present the immense wealth that he had brought from Devagiri, but he was afraid of coming to Delhi and waiting on the Sultan as the Devagiri expedition had been undertaken without the royal permission. Jalal-ud-din disregarded the protests of his officers and decided to proceed to Kara to meet his nephew and son-in-law. He set out from Delhi and travelled by boat, while his army proceeded by land under the command of Ahmad Chap. Ala-ud-din crossed the Ganga to Manikpur and, keeping his army in readiness, sent his brother to lure the Sultan into the trap so cleverly laid for him. Ulugh Khan waited on the Sultan and requested him not to permit his army to cross to the eastern bank of the river, as Ala-ud-din was still full of apprehension and might commit suicide or take refuge by flight. Objections were raised by the courtiers that Ala-ud-din had not come in person to wait on the Sultan and that his army was drawn in battle array. Ulugh Khan replied that he was busy in preparing a feast and making arrangements for the presentation of the spoils from Devagiri and that his troops were drawn up in order to accord a befitting reception to the Sultan. Jalal-ud-din was satisfied by the explanation and proceeded to meet his nephew, followed by a few unarmed attendants. Ala-ud-din now advanced and bowed low before the Sultan. Jalal-ud-din affectionately raised him up and embraced him and then, taking him by the hand, led him towards the boat, sweetly talking with him on the way. Ala-ud-din now gave a signal to one of his followers, named Muhammad Salim, who aimed two sword blows at the Sultan. Jalal-ud-din was wounded and attempted to flee towards the boat crying "Ala-ud-din, wretch ! What have you done ?" Meanwhile another of Ala-ud-din's followers, coming up from behind, severed the Sultan's head from his body. The followers of the Sultan were put to death. Ala-ud-din raised the royal umbrella over his head and proclaimed himself king on 19th July, 1296. Jalal-ud-din's head was placed on a spear and paraded through the two provinces, Kara Manikpur and Awadh, then in the charge of Ala-ud-din.

Estimate of Jalal-ud-din Firoz

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Jalal-ud-din was the first Turkish Sultan of Delhi who placed before him the ideal of benevolent despotism. Though a successful general with powerful army at his back, he gave up the policy of militarism which had been the motive force of his predecessors for about a century. He was very anxious to reconcile the hostile elements in the court and the kingdom by means of a generous policy. He allowed important Turkish officers, who were the followers of Balban's dynasty, to remain in places of power. He showed studied modesty almost to the extent of self-effacement. As has been said, the Sultan did not ride in the courtyard of Balban's palace and refused to sit upon the old throne because he had stood before it as a servant and had a new throne made for himself. It is too much to believe that a lifelong soldier and general like him possessed such natural modesty. Obviously, it was policy. Jalal-ud-din did not undertake any notable military expedition against the Hindu chiefs. Probably he thought that the interests of the State demanded consolidation. During the three years of the rule of Kaiqubad and Kayumars, the administration of Delhi had been thrown out of the gear. It required concentrated attention The charge of pusillanimity does not hold water, for he successfully defended the northwestern frontier of the Sultanate and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mongols who had, therefore, to make peace and settle down in Delhi as peaceful citizens. His rule was not in any way remarkable; but it must be admitted that for the first time in the history of the Sultanate of Delhi there was a king who made some attempt at conciliating public opinion and reconciling the various elements of power among the Muslim population, Turkish, non-Turkish and Indian. Some historians are of opinion that owing to his policy of unbecoming leniency the State would have come to harm if his reign had been prolonged. They have, consequently, come to the conclusion that he was unfit to hold the sceptre in that age. This view seems to be erroneous, for Jalal-ud-din was not all kindness. He was as intolerant towards the religion of the vast majority of the people as his predecessors. He destroyed and desecrated temples and broke images at Jhain, as has already been shown. He could put even a Muslim saint to death, if he believed it to be desirable in the interest of the State. It is unfortunate that Barani picked up only those events of his reign which show him in bad light. That historian, [Figure: INDIA IN 1315A.D. Alauddin Khalji.

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TRANS - OXIANA Bukhara Samarqand Balkh Qunduz Ghur AFGHANISTAN Herat Kabul Ghazni Kandahar MONGOLS Peshawar Nandnah Bhera KASHMIR Srinagar Sialkot Kangra Lahore Jalandar Sirhind Thaneshwar Mandawar Bijnor Amroha Badaun Lucknow Ayodhya Jaunpur Kara Kashi Allahabad Patna Gaya Rajmahal Nadia Lakhnauti Sonargaon Chittagong Dipalpur Pakpattan Samana Multan Uch Bhatner Hisar Hansi Delhi Siri Tilpat Mathura Agra Kalpi Kalinjar Khajuraho Jabalpur Bhilsa Ujjain Dhar Mandu Asirgarh Ellichpur Lasura Deogiri Jalna Kalyani Bidar Gulbarga Raichur Vijayanagar Kanchi Kampili Tanjore Madura Rameshwaram Colombo Dwarasamudra Calicut Mudgal Goa (Sandabur) Dabhol Poona Chaul Bombay Thana Navasari Daman Diu KATHIAWAR Cambay BAGALANA Anhilwara Abu 1311 VASSALS Jalor Siwana Chittor Ranthambhor Ajmer Jham Gwalior Chanderi Bayana Marta Nagaur Jaisalmer Amarkot Thatta Sehwan Bhakkor BALUCHISTAN Kalat PERSIA ARABIAN SEA YADAVAS DEOGIRI (1307) SEMI-INDEPENDENT TELINGANA (1303) KAKATIYAS Warangal Rajamundry Jajnagar ORISSA HOYSALAS (1310) PANDYAS CEYLON BAY OF BANGAL ANDAMAN IS. BURMA BENGAL KAMARUPA NEPAL TIBET CHINA

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Boundary of the Empire Conquered, but Semi-independent.

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Miles who is the sole authority on his reign, was biased against Jalal-ud-din and, in fact, against all Khaljis. The truth seems to be that he was not over-mild, but was anxious to keep a balance between the contending parties. A moderate ruler is generally disliked by various parties by reason of his modesty and impartiality. Barring a few instances, such as the one of letting off the thieves by taking a promise from them not to commit theft again, the history of his reign shows that Jalal-ud-din knew when it was necessary to be firm and when not.