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The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c23.s2: The Southern India

The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c23.s2

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The Southern India

Khandesh

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Situated in the valley of the river Tapti, Khandesh was a province of the Sultanate of Delhi till the end of Firoz Tughluq's reign. Its last governor, Malik Raja Faruqi, who was appointed by Firoz Tughluq, set himself up as an independent ruler during the period of confusion following Firoz's death. He came into clash with Muzaffar Shah I of Gujarat, but was defeated by him. He was reputed to be a kind-hearted ruler. He died on 29th April, 1399, and was succeeded by his son, Malik Nasir. He defeated his brother, Hasan, and captured the fortress of Asirgarh from its Hindu chieftain. He was, however, compelled to acknowledge the suzerainty of Ahmad Shah of Gujarat. He also suffered defeat in a battle with Ala-ud-din Ahmad of the Bahamani kingdom. After his death, which occurred in 1438, there were, one after another, two weak Sultans. In 1457 the throne of Khandesh passed to Adil Khan II who was an able and enterprising king. He brought Gondwana under his possession and reformed the administration of his kingdom. He died in 1501 and was succeeded by his brother, Daud. This ruler died in 1508. Then his son, Ghazi Khan, came to the throne, but he was poisoned within ten days of his accession. There ensued a period of confusion in Khandesh and its neighbours, the Sultans of Gulbarga and Gujarat, endeavoured to fish in troubled waters at its expense. Eventually, Adil Khan I became king of Khandesh. He was a nominee of Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat who acquired considerable influence in the internal affairs of Khandesh. Adil died in 1520. His successors were as weak as he himself was. They could not save the kingdom from the encroachments of the neighbouring rulers. Khandesh was annexed by Akbar in 1601.

The Bahamani kingdom

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During the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq some of the Dakhin nobles rose in rebellion against his oppressive policy, seized the city of Daultabad and proclaimed one of themselves, named Ismail Mukh, king under the title of Nasir-ud-din Shah. Being a man of advanced age and unfit to be the ruler of a new kingdom which needed greater ability and exertion than that he could command, Nasir-ud-din resigned the throne. The nobles now chose Hasan who became king under the title of Abul Muzaffar Ala-ud-din Bahaman Shah on the 3rd August, 1347. The story, related by Farishta, that Hasan was in his early days the menial servant of a Brahman, named Gangoo, who treated him well and prophesied his rise to power, whence in gratitude he assumed the title of Bahamani, has been rejected by modern research as gossip. Hasan claimed descent from the famous Persian hero Bahaman, son of Isfandiyar, and that was why he took up the title of Bahaman Shah, and not from the name of his so-called Brahman master and benefactor.

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Hasan proved to be a powerful ruler. He was determined to extend the boundaries of his small principality. As the result of incessant warfare, he succeeded in extending its limits from the Wainganga river in the north to the Krishna in the south, and from Daultabad in the west to Bhongir in the east. He established an efficient administration at his capital, Gulbarga, and divided his kingdom into four provinces (*tarafs*), namely, Gulbarga, Daultabad, Barar and Bidar. Each province was under a governor who had an army and appointed his civil and military officers. Hasan died on 11th February, 1358. He was just to his co-religionists and a propagator of Islam. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Muhammad Shah I (1358-77). To this ruler belongs the credit of organising the administration of the new kingdom on a sound basis. His foreign policy was marked by hostility to the Hindu kingdoms of Vijayanagar and Warangal with whom he fought almost throughout his reign. He defeated the rulers of these States and compelled them to yield a huge war indemnity. Muhammad was fond of wine and other pleasures. He died in 1371. His son, Mujahid Shah, now became ruler. He continued his father’s policy of waging war against Vijayanagar. He besieged that city, but failed to capture it, made peace and returned to Gulbarga. A conspiracy was formed against his life as the result of which the throne passed to one of his near relatives, named Daud Khan. Daud himself was murdered in May, 1378. The nobles now raised Muhammad Shah, a grandson of Hasan, to the throne who ruled from 1378 to 1397. He was a man of peace-loving disposition and a patron of scholars. He built mosques and gathered men of learning at his court. His reign was marked by a period of peace with Vijayanagar. The last days of this monarch were embittered by intrigues of his sons who aspired to the throne. He died in April, 1397. Then followed two weak rulers whose reigns lasted for a few months each. In November, 1397, Firoz, a grandson of Hasan, seized the throne and assumed the title of Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah. His reign lasted from 1397 to 1422. He was a brave ruler and was fond of the society of shaikhs and learned men. At the same time, he was addicted to sensual pleasures and was a narrow-minded Muslim. He took up the threads of the foreign policy from his predecessors and fought three wars with Vijayanagar, the first two of which were successful. In the last war he was defeated. He fled in confusion, but was pursued. The Vijayanagar troops obtained possession of the southern and eastern districts of the Bahamani kingdom. Firoz felt humiliated and neglected his administration. After this defeat he was deposed by his brother, Ahmad, in 1422.

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The reign of Ahmad Shah (1422-35) is famous, for it was marked by two important events. Firstly, he transferred his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar which had a better situation and more salubrious climate. Secondly, the rivalry between the parties at his court, namely, the Dakhin party and the foreign party, became accentuated. The Dakhin party consisted of local Muslim nobles and was supported by the Africans who did not enjoy high posts in the kingdom. The other party, known as the foreign party, consisted of the Turks, the Persians, the Arabs and held important places at the court and in the provinces. The Dakhinis were jealous of them. Moreover, religious differences added to the political rivalry. The Dakhinis were Sunnis, while the foreigners were mostly Shias. Owing to the dissension at court the administration was much weakened. Ahmad Shah, nevertheless, pursued a vigorous foreign policy. In order to avenge the losses of his brother’s time, he attacked and besieged Vijayanagar. The raja was reduced to great distress and had to pay a huge indemnity. In 1424-25 Ahmad conquered Warangal and slew its ruler. The independent kingdom of Warangal, thus, came to an end. Next, Ahmad defeated Husang Shah of Malwa and inflicted great loss on him. He fought with Gujarat, too, but did not succeed. His last achievement was the victory against the chiefs of Konkan. He died in 1435.

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He was succeeded by his son, Ala-ud-din II (1435-54). Ala-ud-din suppressed his brother’s (Muhammad’s) rebellion and appointed him governor of the Raichur Doab where he remained loyal till the end of his life. Having overcome domestic dissension, he undertook an expedition against Konkan and reduced its chiefs to submission. He compelled the raja of Sangameshwar to give his daughter in marriage to him. Nasir Khan of Khandesh, his father-in-law, took up the cause of his daughter and invaded Barar, but was defeated. Ala-ud-din engaged himself in the traditional warfare with Vijayanagar and acquired huge booty and compelled the raja to give him tribute. Ala-ud-din founded a hospital which was handsomely endowed. He died in 1457. His successor was his eldest son, Humayun, who ruled from 1457 to 1461. He was a tyrant and was known as *zalim*. He died in 1461. Then came to the throne Nizam Shah, a minor son of Humayun. The queen mother, Maqdum-i-Jahan, became the regent. Taking advantage of the minority of the ruler, the rulers of Orissa and Telingana invaded the Bahamani kingdom, but they were repelled. Then Mahmud Khalji of Malwa came on the scene. He invaded Nizam Shah’s country; but owing to the intervention of Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat, he had to retire. The boy king died in 1463, and was succeeded by his brother, named Muhammad. He assumed the title of Muhammad Shah III (1563-82). Like other rulers of his dynasty, he was fond of drink and debauchery. The administration was carried on by his famous minister, Mahmud Gawan, who was given the title of Khwaja Jahan. This prime minister served the Bahamani kingdom with devotion and loyalty. He undertook a number of successful military operations and extended the boundaries of his master’s kingdom. His first work was to subdue the Hindu rajas of Konkan. He captured several forts. He compelled the raja of Sangameshwar to surrender the fortress of Khalna. He also conquered Goa which was one of the best parts of the Vijayanagar empire. One of his assistants seized the forts of Rajamundry and Kondavir. The most important military campaign was, however, against Vijayanagar. The raja was defeated and an immense booty fell into the hands of the victors. An expedition was undertaken against Orissa, from where a large booty, including some elephants, was brought to Bidar. But the Bahamani kingdom suffered from a terrible famine for want of rains, which lasted for two years. This calamity was followed by another, namely, the assassination of the prime minister, Mahmud Gawan. Muhammad Shah III, in his drunken mood, ordered the prime minister to be put to death, at the instigation of the Dakhini nobles who were jealous of his power and influence. They produced a forged letter before the Sultan and made him believe that Mahmud Gawan was in treasonable correspondence with the ruler of Vijayanagar. Mahmud Gawan was put to death on 5th April, 1481. This prime minister was a foreigner and had served the Bahamani kingdom during three successive reigns with ability and loyalty. He was a learned scholar and was fond of the society of learned men. He built a magnificent college at Bidar where he had collected a large number of extremely valuable books. His private life was simple and free from defects; but, like other high-placed nobles of his time, he was religious bigot and persecuted the Hindus and their religion. With his death “departed all the cohesion and power of the Bahamani kingdom.” The administration became weak. The drunken Sultan, Muhammad III, followed his prime minister and died on 22nd March, 1482.

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He was succeeded by Mahmud Shah, his younger son, who was devoid of ability and character. The quarrel between the Dakhini and the foreign nobles continued. Rival nobles and governors cared for their own interests as against the interests of the State. They seized power and asserted their independence. The kingdom was reduced in size and Mahmud's authority remained confined to a small area around the capital. On Mahmud's death he had three successors, one after another, who, like him, were mere puppets in the hands of Qasim Barid-ul-mamalik and, after his death, in those of his son, Amir Ali Barid. The last ruler of this dynasty was Kalimullah Shah. With his death, in 1527, the Bahamani kingdom came to an end. On its ruins sprang five independent kingdoms. They were: (1) The Adilshahi kingdom of Bijapur, (2) The Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmadnagar, (3) The Imadshahi kingdom of Barar, (4) The Qutubshahi kingdom of Golkunda, and (5) The Baridshahi kingdom of Bidar.

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The Bahamani kingdom lasted for over a hundred and seventy-five years during which period the dynasty had eighteen kings. The history of the kingdom is full of intrigues, civil wars and constant struggle with its neighbours. Of the eighteen kings of the dynasty, five were murdered, three were deposed, two were blinded and two died of intemperance. We are told by a Russian traveller, named Athanasius Nikitin, who visited the Bahamani kingdom in 1417, that the country was populous, but the mass of the people were very poor. The nobles, on the other hand, were extremely rich and lived in luxury. Whenever a nobleman went out he was preceded by twenty horsemen and followed by three hundred soldiers on horseback and five hundred on foot and by a number of other people, such as, torch-bearers and musicians. But the lot of the common people was miserable.

The five kingdoms of the Dakhin

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*Bijapur.* The most important of the States which arose on the ruins of the Bahamani kingdom was Bijapur. It was founded by Yusuf Adil Shah and is, therefore, known as the Adilshahi kingdom of Bijapur. In his early days, he was known as a Georgian slave who was purchased by Mahmud Gawan. But, according to Farishta, he was the second son of Sultan Murad II of Turkey from where he had fled to save himself from his elder brother. Be that as it may, Yusuf Adil Khan was possessed of great ability and strength of character and rose to prominence in the service of Mahmud Gawan.

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When he set himself up as an independent king of Bijapur in 1489-90, he proved to be a just and vigorous ruler. Though he had some preference for the Shia sect, he granted toleration to all his subjects and employing Hindus in government service. His administration was marked by justice and humanity, and his court was thronged by scholars from Persia, Turkistan and other Central Asian countries. His four immediate successors were not as able as he, and their reigns were marked by intrigues and war. The sixth ruler, Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1579-1626), was a tolerant and wise king. According to Meadows Taylor, "He was the greatest of all the kings of the Adilshahi dynasty and, in most respects, except its founder, the most able and popular." He annexed the kingdom of Bidar to Bijapur in 1618-19. Bijapur now came into contact with the Mughul Emperor Shah Jahan in the time of his successor, Mahmud Adil Shah. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686.

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*Golkunda.* Golkunda comprised the old Hindu kingdom of Warangal. Its founder was Qutub Shah, a Turki officer of the Bahamani kingdom. During the reign of Mahmud Shah Bahamani he was the governor of Telingana. He declared his independence in 1512 or 1513. He ruled upto 1543 and was succeeded by his son, Jamshid. During the reign of its third king, Ibrahim, Golkunda came into conflict with Vijayanagar. After Ibrahim's death the administration of Golkunda fell into decay owing to the weakness of its later rulers. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.

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*Ahmadnagar.* The kingdom of Ahmadnagar was founded by Malik Ahmad whose father, Nizam-ul-mulk Bahri, was a converted Hindu and prime minister of the Bahamani kingdom. In 1490 Malik Ahmad, who was governor of Junar, declared himself independent. He founded the city of Ahmadnagar and transferred his capital to that place. He captured Daultabad in 1499. He died in 1508 and was succeeded by his son, Burhan-i-Nizam Shah. The third ruler of the dynasty, Husain Shah, joined the Muslim confederacy against Vijayanagar in 1565. The later rulers of this kingdom were weak. The kingdom was over-run and its ruler defeated by Akbar in 1600 and compelled to become a vassal. It was finally annexed to the Mughul empire in 1636.

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*Bidar.* After the governors of the Bahamani kingdom had become independent, a small portion of it survived It was held by the Barids. In 1526 or 1527 Amir Ali Barid removed the puppet Bahamani Sultan and set himself up as an independent ruler of Bidar. His dynasty became known as the Baridshahi dynasty of Bidar. In 1618-19 it was annexed by Bijapur.

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*Barar.* The founder of this kingdom was Fateh-ullah Imad Shah who asserted his independence in 1490. The kingdom became known from his title as the Imadshahi kingdom of Barar. It was conquered and annexed by Ahmadnagar in 1574.

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Of the above five kingdoms, two, namely Bijapur and Golkunda, produced some good rulers. All the five states had a long quarrel with the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar. Ultimately, they combined together and defeated the ruler of Vijayanagar at Talikota in 1565. They quarrelled among themselves also and hampered peace and prosperity in the Dakhin.

The Vijayanagar Empire

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*Origin.* The empire of Vijayanagar came into existence during the confusion of Muhammad bin Tughluq's reign. There are several theories about its origin and the controversy has not as yet come to an end. It is, however, definite that the empire was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka, two of the five sons of Sangama, who were originally in the service of the Hoysala king, Vir Ballala III, and were responsible for organising resistance against the encroachment of the Sultan of Delhi. The city of Anegundi, on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra, which formed the nucleus of the empire, was probably founded by Vir Ballala III about the year 1336. On the death of Vir Ballala III's son and successor, Virupaksha Ballala, in 1346, Harihara and Bukka found themselves in possession of the territory that had belonged to the Hoysala kingdom. They made Vijayanagar, on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra, their capital. The town, probably, owes its birth to Vir Ballala III; but, after it was made the seat of a new government, it must have been greatly improved by Harihara and Bukka. The founders seem to have been greatly inspired and aided by the celebrated scholar and saint, Madhava Vidyaranya and his equally famous brother, Sayana, a commentator of the holy *Vedas*.

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*The Sangama dynasty.* The founders, Harihara and Bukka, belonged to the Sangama dynasty, so-called from their father, Sangama. Harihara I did not assume full imperial title and his brother, Bukka, who followed him, also refrained from doing so. Harihara and his brother brought under their control almost the whole of the territory that had formerly belonged to the Hoysala kingdom. Bukka sent a mission to China in 1374. He died in 1379 and was succeeded by his son, Harihara II. The new ruler assumed the imperial titles of Maharajadhiraj and Raja Parameshwara, etc. He was a great fighter and conqueror and extended his authority over Kanara, Mysore, Trichinopoly, Kanchi and Chingleput regions. During his reign his son, Bukka II, made an attempt to capture by force the Raichur Doab, situated between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra rivers and forming the bone of contention between the Vijayanagar empire and the Bahamani kingdom. He was defeated by Firoz Shah Bahamani. Though a worshipper of Shiva, Harihara II was tolerant towards other religions. He died in 1406 and was succeeded by his son, Deva Raya I. During his reign there were wars with the Bahamani kingdom. He died in 1422. The next king was Vijaya Bukka or Vir Vijaya who reigned for a few months. Then came Deva Raya II who reorganised the administration and placed his army on a sound footing. He appointed an officer to look after the overseas commerce. During his reign Vijayanagar was visited by two foreign travellers, Nicolo Conti, an Italian, and Abdur Razzaq, a Persian, who had left graphic descriptions of the city and the empire. The empire now included the whole of southern India and touched the shores of Ceylon. Deva Raya II died in 1446. His successors were weak. There were rebellions and foreign invasions. The Bahamani Sultan and the ruler of Orissa threatened the eastern provinces. The invaders were, however, successfully repelled by Narasinha, a powerful chieftain of Chandragiri (Chittur district). This chief deposed Virupaksha II, the last ruler of the Sangama dynasty, and seized the throne in about 1486.

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*The Saluva dynasty.* After this episode, which is known as the First Usurpation in the history of the Vijayanagar empire, Narasinha Saluva laid the foundation of a new dynasty, known as the Saluva dynasty. Narasinha ruled for six years. He was an able and popular ruler. He fought for, and recovered, most of the districts occupied by the Bahamani Sultans and the king of Orissa. He was succeeded by his two sons, one after the other, who proved to be worthless princes. During their reigns the power was wielded by Narasa Nayaka who was the commander of the army. When Narasa died in 1505, his ambitious son, Vira Narasinha, deposed Narasinha's worthless son and set himself up as king. This is called the Second Usurpation.

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*The Taluva dynasty.* Vira Narasinha laid the foundation of a new dynasty, which is known as the Taluva dynasty. He seems to have been a fairly successful ruler. He ruled from 1505 to 1509, and, after his death, was succeeded by his younger brother, Krishnadeva Raya (1509-30). Krishnadeva Raya was the greatest king of Vijayanagar and one of the greatest in the entire history of India. A great soldier and general, he waged many wars in all of which he was successful. First of all, he subdued his refractory vassals and reduced them to submission. Next, he obtained possession of the Raichur Doab. Then he turned his attention towards his hostile neighbours. In 1513 he defeated Gajapati Prataprudra, the king of Orissa and recovered from him those portions of the Vijayanagar territory which the latter had wrested during the reigns of his weak predecessors. In 1514 he captured the fortress of Udayagiri and made an uncle and an aunt of the raja of Orissa prisoners. Next, he acquired the fortress of Kondavidu and, thereafter, Kondapalli was acquired. In these campaigns the wife and three sons of the raja of Orissa were taken prisoners. They were treated with courtesy and consideration. After his success against Orissa, Krishnadeva Raya turned against the Sultan of Bijapur whom he defeated in March, 1520. He ravaged Bijapur territory and razed the fortress of Gulbarga to the ground. He was, thus, successful in humbling the pride of his hostile neighbours. The result of his military expeditions was that his authority now extended as far as south Konkan in the west, Vizagapattam in the east and the extremity of the Indian peninsula in the south. Some islands in the Indian Ocean, also, seem to have acknowledged his suzerainty. The power and prestige of the Vijayanagar kingdom reached its zenith under this ruler.

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Krishnadeva Raya was an equally great administrator. He reorganised the administration of the empire. Himself an accomplished scholar, he was a generous patron of learning. He was also noted "for his religious zeal and catholicity". Though a follower of Vaishnavism, he respected and tolerated all other religions. He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese governor Albuquerque and granted him permission to build a fort at Bhatkal. He died in 1529 or 1530. By the unanimous testimony of foreign and Indian writers, Krishnadeva Raya was one of the most remarkable kings that ever ruled in any part of the world. The Portuguese traveller, Domingos Paes, writes: "He is the most learned and perfect king that could possibly be, cheerful of disposition and very merry; he is one that seeks to honour foreigners and receives them kindly, asking all about their affairs whatever their condition may be. He is a great ruler and a man of much justice, but subject to certain fits of rage...He is by rank a greater lord than any, by reason of what he possesses in armies and territories; but it seems that he has, in fact, nothing, compared to what a man like him ought to have, so gallant and perfect is he in all things.”

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*Battle of Talikota, 1565.* Krishnadeva Raya was succeeded by his brother, Achyuta Raya (1530-42). But this prince was a weak ruler. During his time, rival political groups came into existence. The central authority was, therefore, weakened. On his death the throne passed to his nephew, Sadasiva; but the power was in the hands of his famous minister, Rama Raya. Rama Raya was an able administrator. But he was ambitious and tactless. He interfered in the quarrels of the Muslim Sultans of the Dakhin, thinking that'this policy would lead to the restoration of the power and prestige of the Vijayanagar empire. In 1543 he entered into an alliance with Ahmadnagar and Golkunda against Bijapur. A few years later, he joined Bijapur and Golkunda against Ahmadnagar. A joint invasion of Ahmadnagar was undertaken. The Vijayanagar army ravaged the enemy territory and is said to have destroyed mosques and disrespected the *Quran*. This insult to Islam, which must have been highly exaggerated by the parties concerned, brought about an alliance among the Sultans of the Dakhin. The combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkunda and Bidar invaded Vijayanagar and inflicted upon her a defeat on the field of Talikota on 23rd January, 1565. Rama Raya, the prime minister, fought well; but he was captured and put to death by the Sultan of Ahmadnagar with his own hands. The victors acquired a huge booty consisting of jewels, tents, arms and cash, besides horses and slaves. They now proceeded to the city of Vijayanagar and destroyed it mercilessly. In the words of Sewell, the author of *A Forgotten Empire* : “Never perhaps in the history of the world has such havoc been brought and wrought so suddenly on so splendid a city.......”

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Though the battle of Talikota crippled the Vijayanagar empire, it could not blot it out of existence. After their victory there arose mutual jealousy among the four Sultans which prevented them from combining together to put an end to the Vijayanagar empire. Their jealousy enabled Vijayanagar to recover a part of its territory and power.

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*The Aravidu dynasty.* After the battle of Talikota, Rama Raya's brother, Tirumala, transferred the capital to Penugonda. He succeeded in restoring a part of the power and prestige of the empire. He was an ambitious man and, in 1570, he deposed king Sadasiva and seized the throne. He laid the foundation of the Aravidu dynasty. He was succeeded by his son, Ranga II, who was a successful ruler. Then came his brother, Venkata II, to the throne who ruled from 1586 to 1614. During his time the disintegration of the kingdom set in and the king committed the mistake of recognising the complete autonomy of the kingdom of Mysore which was founded by Raja Oedyar in 1612. He transferred the capital to Chandragiri. On his death, in 1614, there was a war of succession and the result was the disruption of the kingdom. The last important ruler of this dynasty was Ranga III. He was powerless to reduce the refractory vassals to submission and to resist the aggression of the Sultan of Bijapur and Golkunda. The empire came to an end after subordinate officers, like the chiefs of Sringapattam and Bednur and the nayaks of Madura and Tanjore, had declared their independence.

The administration of Vijayanagar

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*Central Government.* The king of Vijayanagar empire was the fountainhead of all power in the State; but he was an enlightened despot. Though he was the supreme civil, military and judicial authority, he was not a tyrant or even an irresponsible despot. He governed the empire according to *dharma* and had always the interests of the kingdom and the welfare of the people at heart. The ideal of kingship of Krishnadeva Raya, who was the most important king of the dynasty, was like that of Frederick the Great of Prussia. "A crowned king," writes he, in one of his books entitled *Amuktamalyada* (in Telugu), "should always rule with an eye towards *dharma*." He goes on to say : "A king who should rule, collecting round him people skilled in statecraft, should investigate the mines yielding precious metals in his kingdom, and extract the same and levy taxes from his people moderately, should counteract the acts of his enemies by crushing them with force, should be friendly, should protect one and all of his subjects, should put an end to the mixing up of the castes among them, should always try to increase the merit of the Brahmans, should strengthen his fortress and lessen the growth of the undesirable things and should be ever mindful of the purification of his cities......"

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There was a council of ministers to assist the king in the work of administration. We do not know their exact number; but, for a big kingdom like Vijayanagar, there must have been six to eight ministers. They were appointed and dismissed by the king and held their posts at the king's pleasure. The ministers were from the Brahmana, Kshatriya and Vaishya castes. Sometimes the office of a minister was hereditary; but this was not so in all cases. There was a secretariat. Besides the ministers, there were other officers holding lower ranks, such as, the chief treasurer, officer in charge of jewels, officer in charge of commerce, the prefect of the police, the master of the horse, and so on. The household department of the king, too, was well organised. The court was thronged by nobles, priests, astrologers, musicians, scholars and poets. The splendour of the court, on which the ruler spent a huge sum, was considered an object of wonder to foreign diplomats and travellers.

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*Provincial government.* The Vijayanagar empire was divided into six provinces. Some writers, who base their conclusion on the statement of Domingos Paes, wrongly hold that there were two hundred provinces in the empire. The mistake is, probably, due to Paes's confounding the tributary vassals with the provincial governors. Each province was under a governor called *naik* who was either a member of the royal family or an influential noble. The governor exercised civil, military and judicial powers within his province. He had, however, to furnish an account of the income and expenditure of his province to the central government. He was also required to send military assistance in time of need. The governors, though controlled by the king if he happened to be a man of strong personality, enjoyed wide powers within their jurisdictions.

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*Local administration.* The provinces were divided into districts which were further sub-divided into smaller units. The lowest unit of administration was the village which was self-sufficient. There was a village assembly, like the *panchayat* of northern India, in every village. It carried on the administration of the village through its hereditary officers, such as the village accountant, the village weightsman, the village watchman and the village officer in charge of forced labour. These officers were paid by grants of land or by a portion of agricultural produce. The central administration maintained contact with the village through an officer, called *Mahanayakacharya*, who had a kind of supervisory authority over the administration of the village.

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*Finance.* The mainstay of the government was the land revenue. There was a separate land revenue department. For the purpose of assessment, the land was classified as wet land, dry land and orchards and woods. The State demand during Hindu times was generally one-sixth of the produce; but the kings of Vijayanagar seem to have charged a little more than one-sixth, as they had to maintain a huge army to protect the kingdom from the perpetual hostility of the Bahmani Sultans. Besides the land tax, the government levied the grazing tax, the marriage tax, the customs duty and a tax on gardening and manufactures of various articles. The taxation was rather high; but there was no extortion. The taxes were realised both in cash and in kind.

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*Army.* The empire maintained a huge army, the strength of which varied from time to time. Under Krishnadeva Raya the State army consisted of 3,600 horse, seven lakh foot and 651 elephants. There was an artillery department; but the artillery must have been rather crude. The military establishment was under the management of the commander-in-chief who was assisted by a number of subordinate officials. But the organisation and discipline of the Vijayanagar army seems to have been inferior to those of the Muslim Sultans of the Dakhin.

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*Justice.* The king was the fountainhead of justice and decided cases. There were also regular courts. The judges were appointed by the king. The village people had their cases decided by their own village assembly or *panchayat*. In some cases disputes were settled by the judges with the help of the local bodies. The law administered in the court was that which had come down from the past and was based on traditional regulations and customs and constitutional usage of the country. Criminal law was severe. Theft, adultery and treason to the State were punished with death or mutilation. For ordinary offences the punishment was fine or confiscation of property or ordeal.

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*Religious toleration.* The Vijayanagar kings were deeply religious people. They were devoted to Vaishnavism. But they tolerated all religions, whether of Indian origin or absolutely foreign. Edoardo Barbosa writes : “The king allows such freedom that every man may come and go and live according to his own creed without suffering any annoyance and without enquiry whether he is a Christian, a Jew, a Moor or a Hindu."

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*Defects of Vijayanagar administration.* On the whole the administration was elaborately organised and just. It suffered, however, from a few defects, the most glaring of which was the great power enjoyed by the provincial governors which, subsequently, proved to be the cause of the disruption of the empire. Secondly, the army organisation was not as efficient as it should have been specially as Vijayanagar had to fight almost a continuous war against the Bahamani Sultans. Thirdly, the rulers committed the mistake of allowing the Portuguese to settle on their western coast for the sake of commercial profit. Fourthly, the individualistic tendency of the people was not curbed. Finally, the rulers "failed to develop a sustained commercial activity inspite of various facilities."

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*The social life.* We get a clear picture of the life of the people from the writings of foreign travellers. Society seems to have been well organised. Women occupied a high position and took an active part in political, social and literary life of the empire. They were trained in wrestling, in the use of various weapons of offence and defence, in music and in fine arts. Some of them received literary education of a high order. This presupposes some kind of general female education. Nuniz writes that the king had women wrestlers, astrologers and soothsayers, besides women accountants, women clerks and women guards. Of course, in music and dancing and other fine arts they excelled men. There were some women judges, too. Polygamy was recognised and was practised by the wealthy people. Child marriage was common. Among the rich people dowry was practised on a large scale. Widows committed *sati* on funeral pyres of their husbands. The Brahmans exercised great influence in the society. They were important not only in social and religious matters, but also in administrative and political affairs. Except for the Brahmans, there was no restriction in matters of diet. The kings and the general public were meat-eaters and they ate all kinds of animal food except the flesh of oxen or cows. Animal sacrifices were common. Buffaloes and sheep were sacrificed on the occasion of important festivals.

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*Art and literature.* The empire of Vijayanagar had high cultural and artistic achievements to its credit. We have already seen that Krishnadeva Raya was a profound scholar and a generous patron of literature. Other kings, too, were fond of learning and were surrounded by great scholars and poets. They encouraged Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada languages and literatures. Such notable scholars as Sayana, the well-known commentator of the Vedas, and his brother, Madhava Vidyaranya, flourished in the early days of the Vijayanagar rule. Under Krishnadeva Raya literary activity reached its zenith. There were great poets, philosophers and religious teachers at his court. They were generously rewarded by grants of money and land. The king himself was a scholar and author of note. The tradition passed on and was continued by his successors. The example of the kings was followed by the members of the ruling family and by the nobles and other well-to-do people. Many works on music, dancing, drama, grammar, logic, philosophy and other branches of knowledge were produced. Art and architecture were not neglected. Temples of remarkable beauty were constructed by the kings. Krishnadeva Raya built the famous Hazara temple which, in the opinion of an art critic, is “one of the most perfect specimens of Hindu temple architecture in existence.” The Vitthalaswami temple is another example of the excellent architecture produced by the Vijayanagar kings. Painting was also patronised. Music, too, was greatly encouraged. Theatre was not forgotten. In short, the history of the Vijayanagar empire was marked by an outburst of great literary and artistic activity. In the opinion of a scholar the empire brought about a ‘synthesis of south Indian culture’.

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*The economic condition.* The empire of Vijayanagar was one of the richest states then known to the world. Several foreign travellers, who visited our country during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, have left glowing accounts of its splendour and wealth. The Italian traveller, Nicolo Conti, who visited Vijayanagar in 1420, writes : “The circumference of the city is sixty miles; its walls are carried upto the mountains and enclose the valley at their foot, so that its extent is thereby increased. In this city there are estimated to be ninety thousand men fit to bear arms....the king is more powerful than all the other kings of India.” The Persian diplomat and traveller, Abdur Razzaq, who visited Vijayanagar in 1442-43 remarks : “The country is so well populated that it is impossible, in a reasonable space, to convey an idea of it. In the king’s treasure there are chambers with excavations in them, filled with molten gold forming one mass. All the inhabitants of the country, whether high or low, even down to the artificers of the bazaar, wear jewels and gilt ornaments in their ears and around their necks, arms, wrists and fingers.” Portuguese traveller, Domingos Paes, writes: “Its king has much treasure and many soldiers and many elephants......In this city you will find men belonging to every nation and people, because of the great trade which it has and the many precious stones there, principally diamonds......This is the best provided city in the world and is stocked with provisions, such as rice, wheat, grains, Indian corn and a certain amount of barley and beans, *moongs*, pulses, horse grain and many other seeds which grow in this country on the food of the people and there is a large store of these, and very cheap......The streets and markets are full of laden oxen without count...” Barbosa, who came to India in 1516, is equally full of praise and says that the city is “of great extent, highly populous and the seat of an active commerce in country diamonds, rubies from Pegu, silk of China and Alexandria, and cinnabar, camphor, musk, pepper and sandal from Malabar.”

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From the unanimous testimony of foreign writers it is evident that the empire of Vijayanagar was very rich and prosperous. It was the policy of its rulers to encourage agriculture in the different parts of the empire and to increase agricultural production by a wise irrigation policy. Its agricultural wealth was supplemented by numerous industries, the most important of which were textile, mining and metallurgy. Another important industry was perfumery. Industries and trades were regulated by guilds. It was the common practice of people of the same trade to live in one and the same quarter of the city. There was a great deal of commerce, both inland and overseas. The empire possessed numerous ports and had commercial relations with the islands in the Indian Ocean, the Malay Archipelago, Burma, China, Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia and Portugal. The chief articles exported were cloth, rice, iron, saltpetre, sugar and spices. The articles imported into the country were horses, elephants, pearls, copper, coal, mercury, China silks and velvets. For maritime commerce there were ships. Vijayanagar had a small navy of its own and people were acquainted with the art of shipbuilding. For internal transport bullocks, horses, carts and asses were made use of.

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The Vijayanagar empire had gold and copper coins. There were some silver coins also. The upper and middle classes of the people were wealthy and were accustomed to a high standard of living. The common people were not devoid of the necessities of life, but they were poor as compared with the upper classes. One chief defect in the economic system of the empire was that the common people had to bear the brunt of taxation. Otherwise, however, they were quite happy. They were much more prosperous than the people in the Bahamani kingdom.

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In short, the empire "served a high historical purpose by acting as a champion of Hindu religion and culture against the aggressions of the Muslims in southern India."

Cites (3)