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The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c26.s8: The Fine Arts

The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c26.s8

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English

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The Fine Arts

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We have little evidence about the cultivation of art, other than architecture, during the Sultanate period. One, however, comes across stray and infrequent references to ornamental designs painted on walls or engraved on furniture, arms and saddles and embroidered on flags and costumes. Besides, ornamental pottery and metal work were well developed. Inlaid metal basins, porcelains and bidri vessels and profusely decorated brass and silver pots were used in the royal household and also in the houses of the nobles and high officials.

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But, owing to the Quranic prohibition, the art of painting proper was shunned by the Sultans and the Muslim nobility. Nonetheless, the art of calligraphy was widely practised. Music, though disliked by orthodox Muslims for religious reasons, had such irresistible appeal that it could not altogether be banished. There were, therefore, some musicians of note during the period among whom the great poet, Amir Khusrav, occupies the first place. He set some of his poems to the Indian tunes and is even reputed to have invented new *ragas*.

Architecture

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The Sultans were great lovers of architecture. By the time of the Turkish conquest of our country the various races of Central Asia had developed a style of architecture which was the result of the fusion of indigenous styles of architecture with those of Trans-Oxiana, Iran, Afghanistan, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Northern Africa and the countries of the south-western Europe on the one hand and Muslim Arabia on the other. The architecture brought by our Turkish conquerors to India in the last decade of the twelfth century was, thus, not exclusively Muslim or even Arabian. The distinctive features of this imported architecture were : (1) the dome, (2) lofty towers or minarets, (3) the arch, and (4) the vault. When the Turks came to our country they found a highly developed indigenous style in the land. Nevertheless, being conquerors, they naturally introduced in the country their own ideas and forms and also the method of construction of buildings; but they did not succeed in erecting buildings that could be exact copies of their prototype in Central Asia. Their buildings were greatly influenced by indigenous art traditions, and, hence, the new architecture that emerged was neither completely foreign nor purely Indian. The amalgamation of the foreign and the indigenous architectural styles was made possible by certain factors. Firstly, our foreign rulers had to employ Indian craftsmen and sculptors who had their own clear ideas about the form and method of construction and, therefore, unconsciously introduced into Muslim buildings many decorative and architectural details which had been in vogue in this country for centuries in the past. Secondly, the early conquerors almost invariably built their mosques, palaces and even tombs out of the materials of Hindu and Jain temples which they had callously destroyed. This, without doubt, modified in execution the foreign models which they might have had in view. Thirdly, notwithstanding, the striking contrasts between the Muslim and Hindu styles, their buildings resemble in some particulars and, therefore, the Turkish Sultans sometimes converted the Hindu and Jain temples into mosques by demolishing their flat roofs and providing domes and minarets in their place. In the words of Sir John Marshall, one feature common to Hindu temples and Muslim mosques was “the open court encompassed by chambers or colonnades, and such temples as were built on this plan naturally lent themselves to conversion into mosques and would be the first to be adapted for that purpose by the conquerors. Again, a fundamental characteristic that supplied a common link between the styles was the fact that both Islamic and Hindu arts were inherently decorative. Ornament was as vital to the one as to the other; both were dependent on it for their very being.”

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The first architectural construction erected by Qutub-ud-din Aibak was the well-known Quwat-ul-Islam mosque at Delhi which was begun in 1195 and finished in 1199. It was built on the plinth of a Hindu temple and out of the materials of twenty-seven Hindu and Jain shrines. Most of the columns, shafts and capitals of this mosque were originally parts of Hindu temples and were hurriedly adapted to the needs of a Muslim mosque. The images and carvings on the columns, shafts and capitals were either defaced or concealed by being turned upside down. The only Islamic features of this building are the presence of a screen in front, with Muslim designs and ornaments, and a calligraphic reproduction of the Quranic text. The next Turkish building erected at Ajmer is also a mosque. It is known as Dhai Din ka Jhonpra. This too was built by Qutub-ud-din Aibak. The building was originally a Sanskrit college and temple built by the great emperor Vigraharaja Visaldeva. The upper parts of it were demolished and domes and arches were erected. Even a casual visitor can notice countless human figures on the pillars, and even on the graves inside, with defaced faces and hands and feet. The third important Turkish architecture is the Qutub Minar which was planned by Aibak a little before 1199 and completed by *Iltutmish*. It was originally intended to serve as a place for the *muazzin* to call the ‘faithful’ to prayer, but later on became famous as a tower of victory. This building is essentially Islamic in form and design. Iltutmish, besides completing the Qutub Minar, added some buildings of his own, the most prominent among them being a tomb built on the grave of his eldest son, known as Sultan Ghari. Unlike the Qutub Minar, this building, being the first tomb erected by the Turks, is more Hindu in architectural details and decorative *motif* than any other tomb in existence. From the time of Iltutmish the buildings of the Sultanate began to show a marked increase in Islamic elements. That monarch extended the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and put up a screen in the building. He made some additions to the Dhai Din ka Jhonpara also. Balban built his palace, known as the Red Palace. His tomb at Delhi is purely Muslim in execution. The arch in the entrance of the tomb is the best so far erected by the Turks in the country. The Khalji monarch, Ala-ud-din, was a great builder and erected many buildings. Two of his buildings are notable. They are a mosque called Jamait Khan Masjid at the shrine of Nizam-ud-din Auliya and the famous Alai Darwaza at the Qutub Minar. Both these show a preponderance of Muslim architectural ideas. The buildings of the Tughluq period do not possess that splendour which characterised those of the so-called Slave and the Khalji dynasties. They are simple, formal, prosaic and even austere. The change seems to be due to two reasons. The Tughluq Sultans were hard pressed for money and could not afford to spend huge sums on buildings. Moreover, they were puritanical in their taste and people of religious outlook. Their buildings are characterised by sloping walls and by heavy and dark appearance. The important specimens of the Tughluq architecture are the tomb of Tughluq Shah, the city of Tughluqabad and Kotla Firoz Shah. The Sayyids and the Lodis tried to revive the splendour and the grace of the Khalji period, but they attained only qualified success. In the opinion of a competent critic, they could not “shake off the deadening effect of the Tughluq period.” The best of the Pathan buildings is the Moth ki Masjid built by the prime minister of Sikandar Lodi. According to critics, this is the finest specimen of the architecture of the Lodis.

Provincial architectures

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The rulers of the various provincial dynasties that came into existence on the decline of the Sultanate under the later Tughluqs were also builders of palaces, mosques and tombs. Though in essential features the various provincial styles resemble that of Delhi, they differ from it, and among themselves, in some important details. The Delhi architecture, for example, was more remarkably splendid than that of many a provincial kingdom, the rulers of which could not afford to spend as much money as the Sultans of Delhi. Moreover, the provincial styles of architecture were modified by the local art traditions of pre-Turkish period that still held the field and also by the peculiar conditions that obtained in various provinces.

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***Multan.*** This province, having been for centuries under continuous Muslim rule, possesses several monuments of note. The earliest buildings were two mosques, the first of which was built by Muhammad bin Qasim and the second was erected on the site of the famous temple of Aditya which was demolished by the Karmathians. There are three important shrines in Multan, namely, the shrine of Shah Yusuf-ul-Gardizi (built about 1152), the mausoleum of Bahaul Haqq (built in 1262), and the tomb of Shams-ud-din, popularly known as Shams-i-Tabrizi (built after 1276). There is a fourth shrine, namely, the tomb of Rukn-i-Alam, built by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq (between 1320 and 1324). The above three buildings have suffered greatly from the ravages of time and had to be reconstructed. The last shrine is considered as "one of the most splendid memorials ever erected in the honour of the dead." The building is largely Persian in design.

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***Bangal.*** Although Bangal was so rich and her artists possessed of an inborn sense of art and adaptability of character, the local Sultans did not succeed in developing a first-rate style of architecture. Their buildings were largely made of bricks and stone was very sparingly used. The architecture was characterised by "the use of pointed arches on short pillars and the Muslim's adaptation of the traditional Hindu temple style of curvilinear cornices copied from the bamboo structures, and of beautifully carved Hindu symbolic decorative designs like the lotus." The ruins of these buildings are found at Gaur or Lakhanauti, Tribeni and Pandua. The earliest specimens of the Bangal style of architecture are the tomb and mosque of Zafar Khan Ghazi, which were built mostly out of the materials from the Hindu temples. The well-known Adina Masjid was built by Sikandar Shah at Pandua in the second half of the fourteenth century. It was a very huge and ambitious structure, and, though considered in Bangal as one of the wonders of the world, its design, in the opinion of Sir John Marshall, is "far from being worthy of its size." Another beautiful building is the tomb of Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Shah, which is considered to be one of the finest tombs in Bangal. The Dakhil Darwaza at Gaur is "as perfect an example of brick structure as can be found anywhere in the world." The other well-known structures are the Lotan Masjid, the Bara Sona Masjid, the Chhota Sona Masjid and the Qadam Rasul mosque. Of these the Bara Sona Masjid “has the merit of greater simplicity and impressiveness.” The Bangal style is a class by itself and is inferior to most of the other provincial styles in design, execution, finish and decoration.

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*Gujarat.* The Gujarat style was probably the finest and the most beautiful among the provincial architectures. Before the advent of the Turks the province had already a beautiful indigenous style. The Turkish conquerors utilised the local talent and erected beautiful buildings which were characterised by the use of fine wood carving, delicate stone lattice work and profuse ornamentation. The capital city of Ahmadabad, founded by Ahmad Shah, was enriched by a number of lofty buildings which were built largely out of the materials of the old temples and buildings. One of the best examples of the Gujarat style is the well-known Jami Masjid at Ahmadabad erected by Ahmad Shah in 1411. It has fifteen domes which are supported on two hundred pillars. Another equally beautiful building is the tomb of Ahmad Shah. The city of Champaner, also, contains remarkable buildings, including a grand mosque built by Mahmud Begarha and the palaces in the fort. Dr. Burgess lavishes praise on the Gujarat style and says that it combines “all the beauty and finish of the native art with a certain magnificence which is deficient in their own works.”

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*Malwa.* The province of Malwa also evolved a distinctive style of its own. There are two remarkable mosques at Dhar, the ancient capital of the kingdom. One of these was originally a Sanskrit college attached to which was a Hindu temple. It is even now known as Bhojashala. It was converted into a mosque. The other mosque also is built out of the materials of old Hindu buildings. Both the mosques betray great Hindu influence. Its pillars and tombs are Hindu in form; but the buildings of Mandu, which was established as a capital by the local Sultans, are peculiarly Muslim in design and execution and bear a close resemblance to those of Delhi. The most notable buildings of Mandu, which is fortified by strong stone walls, are the Jami Masjid, the Hindola Mahal, the Jahaz Mahal, Husang Shah’s tomb and the palaces of Baz Bahadur and Rupmati. The Jami Masjid was planned and begun by Husang Shah, but it was completed by Mahmud Khalji. The Darbar Hall, which is popularly known as Hindola Mahal, was also, probably, erected by Husang Shah. Husang Shah’s is the first great tomb in the country built wholly of white marble. The Jahaz Mahal, with its arched walls, roofed pavilions and beautiful reservoirs, is one of the most conspicuous buildings in Mandu. The palaces of Baz Bahadur and Rupmati are built high up on the plateau overlooking the Narmada. In short, Mandu “is, of all the fortress cities of India, the most magnificent.”

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*Jaunpur.* The Sharqi dynasty of Jaunpur was responsible for great patronage of architecture. The buildings erected by the Sultans are characterised by a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim architectural ideas. The buildings of this style are noted for their “massive sloping walls, square pillars, small galleries and cloisters.” The mosques of Jaunpur, which were built out of the materials of the demolished Hindu temples, have no minarets of the usual Muslim type. One of the brilliant specimens of the Sharqi style is the Atala Devi Masjid which was begun in 1377 and completed in 1408. The next is the Jami Masjid which was built by Husain Shah (1452-78). The third is the Lal Darwaza mosque. The other notable buildings are the broken facade of the Jhanjheeri and the Khalis Mukhlis.

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*Kashmir.* In the remote valley of Kashmir the local Sultans adopted the old Hindu tradition of stone and wooden architecture. They supplemented it with structural forms and decorative *motifs* peculiarly associated with Islam. The result was that in Kashmir, as elsewhere, there was a harmonious blending of the Hindu and Muslim architectural ideas. Some of the important buildings there belong to the reign of Zain-ul-Abidin (1420-1470). The tomb of Mandani, with the adjacent mosque in Srinagar, is considered to be a beautiful specimen of Kashmir art. The Jami Masjid at Srinagar built by Sikandar, the *Butshikan*, and extended by Zain-ul-Abidin “is still an instructive example of the pre-Mughal style.” Another building is the mosque of Shah Hamadan in Srinagar which is built exclusively of timber.

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*Dakhin.* The Bahamani Sultans of the Dakhin were patrons of art. They brought into existence a peculiar style of architecture which was a mixture of a number of elements, such as, Indian, Turkish, Egyptian and Persian. The mosques at Gulbarga and Bidar are beautiful specimens of this art; but the most remarkable Dakhin architecture is found at Bijapur. The magnificent mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah, popularly known as Gol Gumbaz, is built after a peculiar style in which the Turkish art ideas have a preponderating influence. There are other equally celebrated buildings, such as, the Jami Masjid at Gulbarga, the Chand Minar at Daultabad and the college of Mahmud Gawan at Bidar. Most of the buildings of the Bahamani Sultans were built on the site, and out of the materials of demolished Hindu temples and, therefore, it was impossible to avoid Hindu influence. According to Sir John Marshall, in the early stages of the evolution of the Bahamanide art the native Dakhin had to struggle hard for its existence; but from about the end of the 15th century it began to reassert itself. The Indian genius, thus, ultimately rose superior to foreign influence.

Hindu architecture

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As has been said, the Hindus had developed architecture to perfection before the advent of the Turks. The distinctive features of the Hindu architecture are : (1) narrow columns, (2) pilasters, (3) corbel brackets, (4) tapering arch built on the cantilever principle, and (5) ornamental designs. Hindu buildings were generally mysterious and were not broad and open. Our rulers were fond of temples and Sanskrit colleges. They did not seem to have bestowed much attention on their palaces. The medieval specimens of Hindu architecture in northern India are to be found in Rajasthan, particularly in Mewar. Most of the rulers of Mewar were patrons of art and architecture. Rana Kumbha erected numerous forts and other buildings. The most beautiful and well-known among them are the fort of Kumbhalgarh and the Kirti Stambha or Jaya Stambha (pillar of victory). This pillar is one of the most remarkable towers in the country. It is built partly of red sand-stone and partly of white marble and is enriched by numerous images of Hindu gods and goddesses with inscriptions engraved at the bottom of each. There is another pillar at Chittor, known as Jai Stambha, which is embellished with beautiful carving and lattice work. At Amber, near Jaipur, there are ruins of old buildings belonging to this period and, so also, in several other States of Rajasthan. The rulers of the Vijayanagar empire were celebrated for their patronage of art. They built council chambers, palaces, public offices, temples and aqueducts, which were considered to be work of great beauty and excited the admiration of foreign travellers. According to Fergusson, the *Vitthala* temple of Krishnadeva Raya is "the finest building of its kind in southern India."

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The Hindu architecture of this period seems to have remained uninfluenced by Islamic ideas. It was not until after the advent of the Mughuls that our architects and artists came under the influence of Islamic art.

Cites (5)