The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c6: Contents

The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. c6

Language: English

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| CHAPTER | | PAGE |
| **1.** | **Our Country on the Eve of the Arab Invasion of Sindh** | **1** |
| | Political condition, 1. The Himalayan States, 2. The Indo-Gangetic Plain, 3. The Dakhin, 5. The Far South, 6. Administrative system, 5. Society and culture, 8. | |
| **2.** | **The Arab Conquest of Sindh and Multan** | **10** |
| | Sindh on the eve of Arab conquest, 10. The Causes, 11. Strength of the invading forces, 13. The conquest of Debal, 14. Contest with Dahir; the fall of Sindh, 15. The conquest of Multan, 17. Causes of the fall of Sindh, 17. ARAB ADMINISTRATION IN SINDH : Partial religious toleration conceded, 20. Political divisions and their government, 22. The revenue system, 22. Justice, 22. Religious policy, 23. Hard lot of the common people, 23. The death of Muhammad bin Qasim, 24. Causes of the eventual Arab failure in Sindh, 24. The effects of the Arab conquest, 27. | |
| **3.** | **Hindu Afghanistan : Its Conquest and Occupation by the Turks** | **29** |
| | Afghanistan under Hindu Rule, 29. The Arabs fail to conquer Afghanistan, 30. Turkish conquest of Afghanistan, 32. | |
| **4.** | **Causes of the Fall of the Hindu States in Early Medieval Age** | **34** |
| **5.** | **India on the Eve of Mahmud of Ghazni's Invasion** | **43** |
| | Political condition, 43. The Arab kingdoms of Multan and Sindh, 43. The Hindushahi kingdom, 44. Kashmir, 44. Kanauj, 44. The Palas of Bangal, 45. Minor kingdoms, 46. The Dakhin kingdoms, 46. Social and religious conditions, 46. Economic condition, 49. | |
| **6.** | **Mahmud of Ghazni** | **50** |
| | Rise of the Turks, 50. Their early raids : SABUKTIGIN, 50. Accession of MAHMUD, 51. His character, 51. His Indian expeditions, 53. An estimate of Mahmud, 60. Successors of Mahmud, 62. The Panjab under the Ghaznavides, 63. Geneological Table, 65. | |

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7. India on the Eve of Muhammad of Ghur’s Invasion 66

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The Ghaznavide Panjab, 66. Multan under the Karmathians, 67. Sindh under the Sumras, 67. The Rajputs : their virtues and faults, 67. Chalukyas of Anhilwara, 67. The Chauhans of Ajmer, 68. The Gahadwaras of Kanauj, 68. The Chandelas of Bundelkhand and the Kalachuris of Chedi, 68. The Palas of North Bangal, 69. The Sena kingdom of Bangal, 70.

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8. Muhammad of Ghur 71

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Early history of Ghur, 71. Causes of Muhammad’s invasions, 72. Conquest of Multan and Sindh, 72. Muhammad defeated at Anhilwara, 73. Acquisition of the Panjab : end of the Ghaznavide rule, 73. His contact with Hindustan, 74. Muhammad’s defeat at Tarain, 74. Prithviraj defeated at Tarain, 75. Results of the second battle of Tarain, 76. Bulandshahr, Meerut and Delhi acquired by Aibak, 77. Second rising in Ajmer, 77. Defeat of Jai Chand of Kanauj, 78. Third rising in Ajmer, 78. Capture of the Gwalior fortress, 79. Fourth rising in Rajasthan, 80. Conquest of Bundelkhand, 80. Conquest of Bihar, 81. Conquest of Bangal, 82. Muhammad of Ghur’s death : his achievements, 83. Causes of our defeat, 84. Geneological Table, 87.

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9. Qutub-ud-din Aibak and his Successors 88

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The Slave Dynasty : a misnomer, 88. QUTUB-UD-DIN AIBAK : His early career, 88. Accession, 89. Qutub-ud-din as king, 90. Foreign policy, 90. His estimate, 92. ARAM SHAH, 92. Geneological Table, 93.

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10. Iltutmish and his Successors 94

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ILTUTMISH : Early career, 94. Iltutmish not a usurper, 94. His early difficulties, 95. Contest with Yulduz, 95. The Mongol menace, 96. Defeat and death of Qubachah, 97. The recovery of Bangal, 98. Rajasthan throws off the Turkish yoke, 99. Iltutmish’s operations in Rajputana, 99. Reconquest of the Doab, 100. His death, 101. His character and achievements, 101. RUKN-UD-DIN FIROZ SHAH, 102. RAZIAH, 104. Fall of Raziah, 104. An estimate of Raziah, 105. MUIZ-UD-DIN BAHRAM SHAH, 106. ALA-UD-DIN MASUD SHAH, 107. NASIR-UD-DIN MAHMUD : His accession and character, 108. Balban : *de facto* ruler, 109. Balban’s temporary eclipse : Rayhan becomes prime minister, 110. Reinstatement of Balban, 111. Balban suppresses rebellions, 111. Death of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, 113. Geneological Table, 113.

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Balban and his Successors

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**BALBAN :** Early life, 114. His accession, 115. Restoration of the Crown’s prestige : Balban’s theory of kingship, 115. The Destruction of ‘the Forty’, 116. Organisation of the spy system, 117. Reorganisation of the army, 118. Suppression of rebellions, 119. Recovery of Bangal, 120. The Mongol invasion, 122. Death of Balban, 123. An Estimate of Balban, 123. **KAIQUBAD**, 124.

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Administration of the so-called Slave Kings

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Extent of the Kingdom, 127. The nature of the State, 128. Relations with the Caliphate, 129. **THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT :** The Monarch, 130. Ministers, 131. **THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT**, 132. The Khalisah districts, 133. The army, 133. Financial administration, 135. Administration of justice, 136. Society and culture, 137.

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Khalji Imperialism

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**JALAL-UD-DIN FIROZ KHALJI :** Eearly career, 140. His unpopularity, 141. Domestic policy, 142. Foreign policy, 143. The ‘New Muslims’, 144. The death of Jalal-ud-din, 144. Estimate of Jalal-ud-din Firoz, 146. **ALA-UD-DIN KHALJI :** Early career, 147. His early difficulties, 149. Occupation of Delhi, 150. His theory of kingship, 151. **DOMESTIC POLICY :** Suppression of rebellions; analysis of their causes, 153. The ordinaces, 154. The Hindus reduced to poverty, 155. The standing army, 156. Control of the market, 157. The revenue policy, 158. Centralization of the administration, 160. **FOREIGN POLICY :** Project of conquests, 160. **CONQUEST OF THE NORTH :** Gujarat, 161. Ranthambhor, 161. Chittor, 162. The Padmini episode, 163. Malwa, 164. Marwar, 164. Jalor, 165. **CONQUEST OF THE DAKHIN**, 165. Failure against Warangal, 166. Devagiri reconquered, 166. Telingana, 166. The Hoysala kingdom of Dwara Samudra, 167. The Pandya kingdom, 167. The last Dakhin expedition, 168. The Mongol invasions : North-Western Frontier policy, 168. Last days and death, 171. His estimate, 171. **QUTUB-UD-DIN MUBARAK :** Accession, 174. Old ordinances cancelled, 174. Rebellions : Devagiri and Madura reconquered, 175. Conspiracy against Mubarak, 176. Mubarak’s conduct : administration disorganised, 176. Mubarak murdered, 177. His estimate, 177. **NASIR-UD-DIN KHUSRAV SHAH**, 178. Weakness of the Khalji system, 180. Geneological Table, 181.

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The Tughluq Dynasty

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GHIYAS-UD-DIN TUGHLUQ : Early career, 182. Domestic policy, 182. FOREIGN POLICY: Expedition to Warangal, 185. Second expedition to Warangal, 185. Raid on Utkala, 186. Rebellion in Bangal, 186. The Mongol invasion, 186. Death of Ghiyas-ud-din, 186. Estimate of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq, 187. MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLUQ : His early career, 189. His accession, 189. DOMESTIC POLICY: Revenue reforms, 190. Taxation in the Doab, 190. Creation of agriculture department, 191. Transfer of the capital, 191. The introduction of token currency, 193. Policy towards Church, 194. FOREIGN POLICY: Plan for the conquest of Khurasan, 196. Conquest of Nagarkot, 196. Qarajal expedition, 196. Relations with China, 197. Mongol invasions, 197. Rebellions, 197. Foundation of the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, 199. His Character and estimate, 200. Was he mad ? 203. Was he a mixture of opposites ? 204. FIROZ TUGHLUQ : His early life, 205. His accession, 205. DOMESTIC POLICY: Administration, 207. The revenue policy, 208. Irrigation, 211. Public works, 211. Justice and other humanitarian measures, 212. Promotion of learning, 212. Religious policy, 213. The slave system, 214. Army, 214. FOREIGN POLICY: Bangal, 215. Expedition to Puri, 216. Conquest of Nagarkot, 216. Conquest of Sindh, 216. Suppression of rebellions, 216. Last days and death, 217. Personality and character, 118. Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, 220. LATER TUGHLUQS 221. Invasion of Timur, 222. Condition of Hindustan after Timur's departure, 224. Causes of the fall of the Tughluq dynasty, 226. Geneological Table, 228.

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The Sayyid Dynasty

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Khizr Khan, 229. Mubarak Shah, 230. Muhammad Shah, 230. Ala-ud-din Alam Shah, 232. Geneological Table, 232.

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The Lodi Dynasty

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BAHLOL LODI: His early life, 233. His accession, 233. Domestic policy, 234. Foreign policy, 235. His estimate, 237. SIKANDAR LODI : His accession, 238. DOMESTIC POLICY: Suppression of rebellions, 239. Subduing of Barbak Shah, 240. Abasement of the nobility, 240. Religious policy, 241. FOREIGN POLICY: Conquest of Bihar, 242. Treaty with Bangal, 242. Conquest of Dholpur and other places, 243. Death, 243. Estimate, 243. IBRAHIM LODI: Accession, 245. FOREIGN POLICY: The subjugation of Gwalior, 246. Defeat at the hands of Rana Sanga, 246. DOMESTIC POLICY: Suppression of Jalal Khan's rebellion, 247. Suppression of the nobles, 248. His estimate, 250. Geneological Table, 250.

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The Provincial Kingdoms

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THE NORTHERN INDIA: Jaunpur, 251. Malwa, 253. Gujarat, 255. Bangal, 257. Kashmir, 260. Orissa, 261. Kamarupa and Assam, 262. Rajasthan, 268. THE SOUTHERN INDIA: Khandesh, 264. The Bahamani kingdom, 265. The five kingdoms of the Dakhin, 269. The Vijayanagar empire, its origin 271. The Sangama dynasty, 271. The Saluva dynasty, 272. The Taluva dynasty, 273. Battle of Talikota, 274. The Aravidu dynasty, 275. The administration of Vijayanagar: Central government, 275. Provincial government, 276. Local administration, 276. Finance, 277. Army, 277. Justice, 277. Religious toleration, 277. Defects of Vijayanagar administration, 278. The social life, 278. Art and literature, 278. The economic condition, 279.

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Administration of the Sultanate

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CENTRAL GOVERNMENT: The Sultanate : a theocracy, 282. The Caliph as the nominal sovereign, 283. The Sultan, 283. The Ministers, 285. The Wazir, 285. Diwan-i-ariz, 286. Diwan-i-insha, 286. Diwan-i-rasalat, 287. Sadr-us-sudur, 287. The Majlis-i-khalwat, 288. Other departments, 288. Chancellor of royal household, 288. PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION, 289. LOCAL ADMINISTRATION, 290. THE ARMY, 291. FINANCE, 295. What is *Jizya*? 296. Other taxes, 297. Land revenue, 297. Justice and peace, 300. Religious policy, 304.

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The North-Western Frontier Policy : Mongol Invasions

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The problem : the scientific frontier of India, 308. The actual frontier, 308. Iltutmish and the Mongols, 309. Effect of Mangbarni's activity in Sindh, 310. Multan, Sindh and West Panjab in Mongol hands, 311. Balban's frontier policy, 313. Mongol attacks on Delhi, Defence arrangement of the Khaljis, 314. The later phase, 315. Effects of the Mongol menace, 316.

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Society and Culture

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THE MUSLIM COMMUNITY : The ruling class, 317. The Indian Muslims, 318. Main classes in Muslim community, 319. The *Ulema*, 320. THE HINDUS : Condition, 321. ECONOMIC CONDITION, 325. LITERATURE : Persian literature, 328. Sanskrit and Hindi literatures, 330. Urdu language, 332. THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT, 332. THE FINE ARTS, 336. Architecture, 337. Provincial architectures, 339. Hindu architecture, 343.

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Rapid over-running of Hindustan, 344. Our bid for freedom, 346. Why foreign pockets were allowed to exist on our soil? 346. Causes of frequent dynastic changes, 349. Effects of Turkish impact on our society, 351. Why Hindus failed to absorb Muslims, 354.

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APX. A. Origin of Nasir-ud-din Khusrav Shah of Delhi | 355 APX. B. Chronology of the Delhi Sultans | 360 APX. C. The Principal Authorities | 362