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History of Mediaeval Hindu India (being a History of India from 600 to 1200 A.D.) v1.c9: Chapter V

History of Mediaeval Hindu India (being a History of India from 600 to 1200 A.D.) v1.c9

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English

Chapter V

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Having described the people we will now pass on to describe their social condition that is, their dress and ornaments, their customs and their manners. In these respects too, the days of Harsha stand as a dividing line between ancient and modern India, constituting as it were the last ring in the chain of ancient times. The dress of the people in India, is thus described by Hiuen Tsang. "The inner clothing and the outward attire of the people *have no tailoring*. As to colour, a fresh white is esteemed and motley is of no account. The men wind a strip of cloth round the waist and up to the armpits and leave the right shoulder bare. The women wear a long robe which covers both shonlders and falls down loose. The hair on the crown of the head is made into a coil, all the rest of the hair hanging down. Some clip their mustachios or have other fantastic fashions. Garlands are worn on the head and necklaces on the body." (Watters Vol. I. p. 150) This shows first, that up to the days of Harsha tailoring had not yet been introduced into India. The clothing both of men and women consisted as of old of one piece of cloth wound about the loins, and taken up above one shoulder in the case of men and above both in that of women. The Uttarīya or the second or upper piece of cloth was used by both men and women sometimes but not necessarily as Hiuen Tsang does not mention it. This dress is noticed not only in the Manusmriti, but also by Greek writers. In fact, the Greeks themselves and even the Romans used only two long robes, similarly worn over the shoulders and falling fellow in folds. At the present day the one cloth dress of women has still remained in vogue in Bengal, in Madras and partially in Bomday i. e. in the east, the west and the south but has been substituted by a sewn petticoat in the north, though even there the women in their houses use often the one cloth covering. For men, the Dhoti or the lower cloth has still remained the usual clothing used in public. Except in the south and west sewn clothes have now become the fashion; and for the upper clothing or uttariya sewn clothes have everywhere been substituted. The institution of tailoring was probably introduced after Harsha's time by the Arabs in the eighth century and perhaps even later by the Turks in the eleventh.

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How Hiuen Tsang's description is accurate to the last detail is borne out by the following description by Bāṇa of Harsha when he started on his digvijaya or expedition for universal conquest; "परिधाय राजहंसमिथुनलक्ष्मणी सदृशे दुकूले, परमेश्वरचिह्नभूतां शशिकलामिव कल्पयित्वा सितकुसुममुण्डमालिकाम्" H. C. page 274. "Harsha wore two like Dukūlas or fine cloth pieces marked with pairs of swans and wore round the top of his head, like the moon cresent on the head of Śiva, a garland of white flowers indicative of the sovereignty of the world." If two white fine garments marked with pairs of swans and a white garland on his head formed the auspicious dress of even a king aspiring to be an emperor, the dress of ordinary men in ordinary times could not have been anything else but two white cloth pieces, now-a-days called Dhotis (called so probably because they are daily washed). The custom of wearing garlands on the head like a crown has now ceased entirely, and the turban has been substituted for it. A turban, however, (Ushṇisha) is spoken of in the Harsha Charita also and even in the Mahābhārata, but the description recorded by Megasthenes serves to indicate that the upper garment and the turban often formed one piece of cloth. It is probable, therefore, that no third cloth was ordinarily used for covering the head. The difference between the great and the low, the dress being the same two pieces of cloth, consisted in the fineness of its texture and the whiteness of its colour. Hiuen Tsang speaks of different fine cloths of wool, silk and cotton as follows; "Kausheya being of silk, Kshauma a kind of linen, Kambala a texture of fine wool and Holala (or Horala?) made from the wool of a wild animal," and I suppose cloth made of cotton. The art of making fine cloth of silk, wool and cotton had then reached perfection and it may be believed that cloth finer than that woven even now in England was then produced, as even now in cities of India like Dacca. This advance or perfection in the art of weaving is to be gathered from a description by Bāṇa of pieces of cloths collected for the marriage of Rājyashrī. "क्षौमैश्च बादरैश्च दुकूलैश्च लालातन्तुजैरांशु कैश्च नैत्रैश्च निर्मोक-निभैर्निभ्वासहार्यैः स्पर्शानुमेयैः वासोभिस्सर्वतः स्फुरादिन्द्रायुधसहस्रैरिव संच्छादितम् H. C. 202-3. "The palace was strewn with Kshauma (silk) Bādara (cotton) Dukūla (linen) Lālātantuja (?) Anśuka (?) Naitra (?) cloths glistening like serpant's skin, fit to be blown even by a breath and inferrable only by touch, of all colours of the rain-bow." Some of these materials of cloth cannot now be ascertained, but that the cloth was of the finest texture need not be doubted. The white was the colour esteemed by men but probably women liked different colours and different designs of patches of ornamentation such as pairs of swan mentioned above. Plain, borderless white cloth was, then as now, not liked by women for it appears that this sort of cloth was distinctive of widows.* Of course Buddhist monks and nuns wore simple cloth coloured red, though in this colour there must have been different shades in the different schools as Hiuen Tsang says that the size and colour of the plaits vary in different schools ( Watters I page 150. ) Jain recluses affected cloth coloured yellow and Hindu recluses or Sanyāsis used cloth coloured soiled red. These colours these three religions probably chose of purpose to distinguish themselves from one another. Plain white clothing of widows is noticed even in the Mahābhārata ( Āsramavāsi Parva ) when describing the widowed daughters-in-law of Dhṛtarāṣṭra. This distinctive colour of widow's clothing has now been thrown into shade by the red colour perhaps taken in imitation of Buddhist runs among the women of the south and by indigo colour by women in the north and west. Strangely enough white cloth is affected by and is distinctive of public women at the present day.

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∗ See H. C. page 236. "परिधत्तां भवले वाससी वसुमती" Let the earth (widowed by the death of Prabhākara) wear white clothes.

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If the Indian people wore simple dress they were very fond of ornaments. In fact the taste of the Indian people is in this respect exactly the reverse of the people of the west (who spend more on dress than on ornaments). Contrasted with the simplicity of their dress and habits Hiuen Tsang thus speaks of their ornaments, “The ornaments of the kings and grandees are very extraordinary. Garlands and tiaras of precious stones are their head ornaments and their bodies are adorned with rings, bracelets and necklaces. Wealthy mercantile people have only bracelets” (Watters I p. 51). Even now the rage for ornaments in India is excessive though perhaps want of gold and precious stones has now compelled men to go about without ornaments. But merchants, sardars and princes even now wear profusion of ornaments according to their means. The tiara, however, has now disappeared and properly enough as perhaps since the days of the Mahomedans there has been no crowned king as such, (except Shivaji alone) in India. Harsha is said by Bāṇa to have put on one bracelet indicative of his sovereignty but strangely enough is not said to have put on a crown. He was presented with a necklace of big pearls by Divākaramitra as a fitting person to wear such a priceless ornament. Armlets or Angadas have also not been noticed by Hiuen Tsang though they are by Bāṇa as also Kundalas and Keyūras or earrings (see Bāṇa’s description of Kumāragupta and Mādhavagupta pages 197-198 where both are shown to have garlands on the heads and the first a bracelet and Keyūra and the latter a necklace.) The case of women is different. They, even the poorest in India, must have some ornaments on their person while as for rich women, they have a profusion of gold, pearl and stone ornaments.

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We must give some further minor details given by Hiuen Tsang about dress and appearance. “Most of the people go bare-foot and shoes are rare”. Women even now go bare-foot and even though they may afford to use shoes, while country people and poor men have perforce to do so. "They stain their teeth red or black, wear their hair cut even, bore their ears, have long noses and large eyes, such are they in outward appearance." (Watters, Vol. I p. 151). The practice of boring the ears even now is, and must then have been universal for it is a practice prescribed by the Hindu Śastras and hence the appellation 'unbored' applied to people other than Hindus. As for the hair, the Brahmins must have usually shaved their heads as also their chins; but their description does not indicate so. Previously we are told, the hair on the head hang loose and hence they cannot have been cut even. This probably applied to the Kshatriyas and kings. The military officers allowed beards to grow and even wore whiskers. Bāṇa's description of the Commander-in-chief of Thanesar is very interesting in this respect. "शिरोरुहसटाः धवलस्थूलगुञ्जापिच्छप्रच्छादितकपोलभागभास्वरेण...मृतमपि हृदयस्थितं स्वामिनमिव सितचामरेण वीजयन्ताभिलम्बेन कूर्चकलापेन" "with tangled hair on the head, his cheeks covered with white bunches of whiskers and with his long white beard falling on his breast, as if fanning his master seated in the heart, though dead, with a chāmara" H. C. p. 257-258.

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We will now go on to describe the manners and customs of the Indian people and will speak first of their marriage customs. The foremost observation to make in this respect is that the custom of child-marriages had yet not arisen in India. Had it been otherwise Hiuen Tsang would undoubtedly have mentioned it as he mentions the custom of the prohibition of widow marriage. From Bāṇa's description of the marriage of Rājyaśrī also the same inference can be drawn. Rājyaśrī was married when she was physically fit to be married and consummation of marriage is spoken of on the day of marriage itself. Perhaps it may be argued that this was Kshatriya fashion but apparently there was no difference between Brahmins and Kshatriyas in this respect. Bāṇa himself married the grown up sister of Mayūra as tradition relates. In this matter also Harsha's times thus are the parting link between ancient and modern India as hereafter we shall see that child marriage was gradually introduced.

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The description of Rājyaśrī’s marriage ceremony given by Bāṇa in the Harsha Charita is indeed masterly, poetical, picturesque and true to fact and nature. The extreme anxiety of the parents, all powerful as they were, is graphically described, and the grand preparations made on the occasion. It appears that it was then the custom for intending bridegrooms to demand girls in marriage. (In modern India the contrary practice holds the ground among the higher classes at least.) The father or guardian of the girl then chose from among the suitors the best, chiefly on account of high family and then poured water on the hand of the emissary solemnly declaring the gift of the girl. The bridegroom and his party thereafter came to the town of the bride and were suitably lodged. On an auspicious day and at an auspicious time (astrology then being as powerful as now) fixed by the astrologers, the bridegroom came in procession to the house of the bride and was received at the door by the bride’s father, conducted to the assembly and duly honoured. The Kshatriyas apparently observed purdah then as now and the actual marriage took place in the purdah where Brahmins were admitted. The immortal Bāṇa describes the bride anxiously waiting near the marriage Vedi surrounded by her companions and incessantly chiding both her own heart and the companions for prompting her to raise her head to have a look at the bridegroom, as he entered the inner apartment. For Indian brides then as now usually hung down their heads before the bridegrooms. At the arrival of the exact auspicious moment the bride and bride-grooms joined hands, kindled the sacrificial fire, threw in it the oblations of Lājā or fried rice and walked the seven steps constituting life-long friendship, the most vital part of the ceremony of marriage according to the Smritis. The bride and bridegroom then bowed to their parents and elderly ladies and relations and Brahmins. Strangely enough Bāṇa does not describe that there was a feast hereafter. He describes their repairing to the Āvāsa gṛiha or specially prepared decorated honeymoon room where they passed their first night of conjugal happiness. The bridegroom is described by Bāṇa as residing for about 8 or 10 days hereafter at the father-in-law's house and trying to gratify in every way his mother-in-law. He then departed with his bride after receiving suitable presents, servants and paraphernalia, to his own country.

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From the above detailed description it will appear that although the ritual of marriage has remained almost the same, there is a difference in the then and the present custom of marriage in two important points namely, that then the bridegroom usually sought the bride and secondly that consummation took place on the first day of marriage indicating of course that the girls were grown up at the time of marriage.

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The next observation to make with regards to marriage is that women once married could not be remarried, at least, in the three higher castes as now. But the tonsure of widows is apparently a custom later than the times of Bāṇa, for in one place, Bāṇa speaks of the peculiar Veṇi. i. e. braid of hair of widows, see बधातु वैधव्यवेणीं वरमनुष्यता. H. C. p. 236. What this particular mode of Veṇi or braid of hair of widows was, there is no indication. In the Rāmāyaṇa we have the expression एकवेणीधरा applied to Sītā when she was in Rāvaṇa's house separated from her husband and this kind of Veṇi is also frequently mentioned by poets in connection with women whose husbands are away. Happier women put on the three braided Veṇi but what difference was made between the Ekaveṇi of wives with husbands living but away and the Veṇi of widows we cannot discover. Widows had also, as already stated, a distinctive colour of their clothes, namely, the white, other women wearing coloured clothes and clothes with borders probably.

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The custom of enforced widowhood, not accompanied by that of child marriage must not then have been felt a grievance though pitiable instances of women widowed in early age like Rājyaśrī must have occurred now and then. To these women Buddhism offered an asylum and the order of Buddhist nuns must have been principally composed of such women. Though thus enforced widowhood did not then exist in its cruellest form, we have to notice another inhuman custom which appears to have then obtained from the writings of poets and even the descriptions of Bāṇa in the Harsha Charita. Widows of kings conquered and slain in battle appear to have been reduced to the condition of servitude in the family of the conqueror. It is no wonder, therefore, such women often preferred death to servitude. It is strange that the woes of the widows of conquered kings are a favourite topic for the poet's art to exhibit itself. Widow marriage not being allowed, such women in the family of the conqueror might have also often been reduced to the condition of concubines. The harems of kings, it must also be noticed, consisted of a number of wives and a still larger number of concubines or courtezans. The latter, of course, easily exchanged their position with one king for that with another and greater king.* But that the widowed queens of conquered kings should usually have been reduced to the status of servants and sometimes of concubines seems rather strange and cruel compared with the otherwise well ordered and moral condition of the Hindu society and we would not have believed in it, but for such passages as the following one from Bāṇa, आपीतौ युष्मद्विधैः पुत्रैर्मित्रकलत्रबन्दिवृन्द-विधूयमान-चामर-मरुच्चल-चीनांशुकधरौ पयोधरौ H. C. P. 231.

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With these exceptions the condition of women was generally very good. They were well treated and well educated. Rājyaśrī was well versed in various Kalas and Śāstras and was a learned lady. Nay she was taught singing and dancing (H. E. page 197) arts which are now looked down upon as prohibited to respectable women in the Hindu society. Bāṇa's description of the dancing of the ladies of sardars and princes on the joyous occasion of the birth of Harsha is remarkable. Of course the dancing of such respectable women was different from that of public women and was not open to men to gaze at. And the dancing of men and women together did not exist as may be gathered from the fact that purdah was in force in those days and hence mixed gatherings of men and women were impossible.

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∗ See the mention of the concubines of the king of Malwa who was conquered and killed by Rājya, presented by Bhandi to Harsha. अप्सरस इव बहुसमररस सहस्रानुरायावतीर्ण वारविलासिनी. H. C. P. 302

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The custom of Sati was of course prevalent. And Harsha's mother is discribed by Bāṇa to have burnt herself even before her husband was actually dead. The practice of burning oneself in fire, was resorted to even by men who did so often to express their intense affection for a deceased master, or for the mere sake of merit or to avoid misery and pain. Bāṇa describes Rājyaśrī as about to burn herself in her destitution and also the friends of Prabhākaravardhana like his physician Rāsāyana and some of his favouite ministers and servants burning themselves before or after his death much in the manner of the Japanese minister who shot himself after the death of the last Mikado. These discriptions of Bāṇa might have been treated as mere poetical hyperbole had it not been for corroborating epigraphic evidence. In the Aphsad inscription (Crop. Ins. Vol. III P. 225) we find king Kumāra Gupta burning himself in fire at Prayāga. Why he did so does not appear, but from the fact that he burnt himself at Prayāga, he may be believed to have done so merely for the merit of it. “शौर्य-सत्यव्रतधरो यः प्रयागतोऽधने । अम्भीवकारिष्याग्नौ मग्नः सः पुष्पपूजितः” The contempt of death exhibited in these acts of self-sacrifice is indeed remarkable. Then there were other modes of putting an end to one's life, such as falling from a precipice or swallowing dire poison and so on. These are described even in the Mahābhārata and the custom of putting an end to one's life for various allowable reasons seems to be very ancient.*

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∗ As for instance Arjuna's preparation to burn himself in a fire for not being able to kill Jayadratha or the Prāyopaveśana of Bhūriśravā on the battlefield (smothering oneself to death). The custom of self-immolation at Prayāga is described even by Hiuen Tsang.

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We will lastly speak of the funeral customs of the people. The dead were usually burnt on pyre, except perhaps in the case of hermits whose dead bodies were buried. On the third or tenth day bits of bones of the burnt body were collected and generally sent to some sacred place to be thrown into a river or pond considered sacred. Śrāddhas were performed at which Brahmins were fed and gifts of several kinds were made to Brahmins. It does not, however, appear that the gifts mentioned in modern Purāṇas and later books had then come into vogue. The following passage from Bāṇa's Harsha Charita describing what was done at the time of the obsequies of the deceased Prabhākara father of Harsha will show this—"अथ भुक्ते प्रथमप्रेतपिण्डभुजि द्विजन्मनि गतेषूद्वजनीयेष्वाशौचादिवसेषु, चक्षुर्हदायिनि दीयमाने द्विजेभ्यः शयनासनचामरातपत्रा- मत्रपत्रशस्त्रादिके नृपतिकनिकटोपकरणकलापे नतिेषु तीर्थस्थानानि सह जनहृदयैः क्रीक- सेषु, वनाय विसर्जिते महाजिजिति राजगजेन्द्रे H. C. p. 241 "When the Brahamin (one) eating the first oblation to the dead had been feasted, when the bed, the seat, the Chāmara, the umbrella, the drinking bowl, the carriages and the arms and other belongings of the deceased monarch, which could not be looked at without pain, had been given away to Brahmins, when his bones had been sent to a holy place and when the great riding elephant of the king, who had won many battles had been let off in the jungles.". This speaks it may be noticed, of only one Brahmin being fed, it speaks of the royal elephant as let off, not given in gift and of the king's belongings being given away to Brahmins, not because they would be of use to his soul in its progress across the river of the Dead in the Yamaloka, but because their sight gave impetus to grief. This description of the obsequies of even a great king will show that the Garuda Purāṇa theory of gifts of various things for the benefit of the soul had not yet arisen. The expression सुधानिचयचिते चिता- चैत्यचिन्हे which we have omitted from the above quotation is somewhat difficult to understand but it seems that the custom of raising some temple at the place of burning the the dead body of the kings was then prevalent as now. A mark of such memorial temple was promptly made by a heap of whitened stones and the memorial temple was subsequently raised. In the case of ordinary funerals such memorials were not raised as will also appear below.

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It is necessary to add here the description of the funeral customs of the people recorded by Hiuen Tsang. He says (Watters, Vol. I p. 174) “At the obsequies of the deceased the relatives wail and weep, rending their clothes and tearing out their hair, striking their brows and beating their breasts. There is no distinction in the styles of mourning costume and no fixed period of mourning. There are three recognised customs for disposing of the dead. The first of these is cremation, a pyre being made on which the body is consumed. The second is water-burial, the corpse being put into a stream to float and dissolve; the third is burial in the wilds, the body being cast away in the woods to feed wild animals. Meritorious appellations are conferred on the living, the dead have no honorary distinctions. No one goes to take food in a family afflicted with death. But after the funeral, matters are again as usual. Those who attend the funeral are all regarded as unclean and they all wash outside the city wall before entering. Those who become very old or are afflicted by incurable disease, who desire to cast off humanity, are given a farewell entertainment by friends and relatives and are taken in a boat to the middle of the Ganges with music, that they may drown themselves in it, saying that they would be born in heaven. The Buddhist brethren are forbidden to wail aloud. On the death of a parent they read a service of gratitude ‘their following the departed is securing bliss in the other world.’”

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