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History of Mediaeval Hindu India (being a History of India from 600 to 1200 A.D.) v3.c41.s1: Brahmins.

History of Mediaeval Hindu India (being a History of India from 600 to 1200 A.D.) v3.c41.s1

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Brahmins.

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In the beginning of this sub-period Brahmins all over India were one caste undoubtedly. In previous centuries Brahmins were distinguished by their gotras and their Śākhās only. Inscriptions of all countries, in previous sub-periods give only their gotras and Śākhās (or Vedic ritual) and never mention the names of any sub-section. Even in this sub-period for about fifty years we find the same practice prevailing. Thus a Chandella grant dated 1050 A. D. (I. A. XVI p. 206) describes the donee as a Bhāradvāja gotra, Tripravara Brahmin of Yajurveda Śākhā. In a Kalachuri inscription again (Kahla, Gorakhpur District U. P.) dated 1077 A. D. (E. I. VII p. 86), we have many Brahmin donees whose description consists of their gotras with pravara number of each and their Śākhās plus their place (village or town) of residence. So also a later Chālukya grant dated 1040 describes the donee as Kauśika gotra and Bahvṛcha (Rigvedi) Brahmin (B. B. R. A. S. XII p. 51). Later we begin to have the mention of the Brahmins' country of residence. Thus Kumārapāla's Praśasti at Vadnagar mentions the writer as a Nāgara Brahmin (St. 1208, 1151 A. D.). Some Chandella and Gāhadavāla inscriptions describe the Brahmin donees as Thakkura (E. I. IV p. 121) and in Gāhadavāla and Haihaya inscriptions they are described as Rāuta (E. I. XIV. p. 274). In a feudatory southern Malwa inscription dated 1135 A. D. we find the Brahmin donee described as Karṇāta (I. A.

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XIV) with the Brahmin's gotra and Pravara added and it was an important discovery to find a Śilāhāra of Karhad grant describing the Brahmin donees as Karhāṭaka and Ghaisāsa Brahmins, the importance of which we will shortly notice. Names of country became so important that latterly the mention of gotra and Śākhā was omitted for Brahmins, though in the previous sub-period it was considered necessary (Vol. II p. 276). Thus in the Sāsabahu temple inscription (I. A. XV p. 36) dated 1093 we find names of many Brahmin donees without the mention of gotra. In an inscription of Bholā Bhīma of Gujarat dated St. 1256 or 1200 A.D. (I. A. XI p.72) the Brahmin donee is described without the mention of his gotra or Śākhā by his name only and by his Raikavāla Jāti or sub-section of Brahmin caste. In a Konkan inscription dated 1249 A. D. (J. R. A. S. Bombay IX p. 248) we have names of 32 Brahmin donees whose gotras are given but whose Śākhā is not stated and instead of it every Brahmin's surname is given. Surnames grew by this time, either from profession or from place of residence or other peculiarities and the importance of Śākhā was lost sight of. Surnames probably came into use among Brahmins in this sub-period such as Dikshita, Raut, Thakur, Pāthaka, Upādhyāya, Pattavardhana* and so on. It is no doubt true that even so late as 1200 A. D. we find gotra and pravara of Brahmins mentioned;

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the continuance of their mention is not strange as Brahmins still keep up the memory of their gotra and pravara. But what is pertinent to remark is that along with gotras, family surnames begin to be mentioned and later on subcaste names based on country of residence. Thus in a Paramāra inscription dated 1226 A. D. (E. I. IX pp. 108 and 121) we have many names of Brahmin donees with gotra and pravara mentioned but in each case the surname is added, such as Pandit, Dīkshita, Dvivedi, Chaturvedi, Āvasthika and so on, and the places from which these Brahmins of the same surname came are different such as Mathura, Tripur, Akola, Dendavāna. So also in an inscription of Jayachchandra dated 1177 (E. I. IV p. 129) the many Brahmin donees are thus described, 1 Deva Śri Lotārka (gotra not given), 2 Bandhula gotra Purohita Śri Paharajaya, 3 Sarkarākshya gotra Pandit Śri Rishikeya and so on; the word Pandit is abbreviated into Pam for four Brahmins and one is styled Dviveda. These epithets gradually grew into surnames of these Brahmins. In I. A. XIX (p. 353) we have the donee Brahmin described as Dākshiṇātya Karṇāta Diveda Thakkura as also Āvasthika. The surname Avasthi has survived in Oudh among Brahmins but not among Deccani or Karṇāṭaka Brahmins. The gotra thus retains for some time its importance among Brahmins at least and finds mention in inscriptions almost invariably.

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But as stated above, Pravara and Śākhā are usually omitted though all Brahmins have retained their memory down to this day.

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∗ The name Trivādi occurring in this inscription is inexplicable as also Kramita.

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Whatever this may be, we have not mention yet of the division of Brahmins into the modern two main sections viz. Pancha Gauda and Pancha Drāvida. It is not found even in the Skanda Purāṇa which we have placed in the ninth century A. D. (see Vol. II p. 39 ) properly enough. For the distinction arose even later than 1200 A. D. This main division is probably based on the flesh food of the former and the vegetarianism of the latter. But there is no doubt that Brahmins had sub-divided themselves into numerous sub-sections long before 1200 A. D., according to country of residence or its chief town, owing to peculiarities of customs, as also of ideas of purity of race. We find it recorded in the Nāgara Khanda of the Skanda Purāṇa where the whole history of Nāgara Brahmins and their special good Hāṭakeśvara Śiva is given that an unknown Brahmin came to their town and a Nāgara Brahmin gave him his daughter in marriage. He was subsequently found out to be a Cāṇḍāla to the consternation of the community and the Nāgaras thereupon made it a rule not to give daughters in marriage to any but known Nāgara Brahmins and the Nāgara known Brahmin families were enumerated. This arrangement seems gradually to have been adopted by all castes and sub-castes came consequently to deserve the name jñāti or known section. In the Abu inscription we have the word Nāgara jñātibhājā (Vol. II p 85) actually used by the writer to describe his caste or subsection (St. 1331 or 1274 A. D.). This story is apparently a later invention and probably an interpolation in the Skanda Purāṇa but it indicates the reason why marriage relations were gradually restricted to people of known pedigree residing in the same country. And thus began the subdivisions of Brahmins based on country of residence. Commencing from Kashmir we have thus Brahmins divided into 1. Kashmiri. 2. Nagarkotia (those who reside in Nagarkot the capital of Katoch kings in Kangra). 3. Muhyal in the Panjab (al is a termination which indicates subcaste). 4. Sārasvata. 5. Gauda (of Guda or Thanesar). 6. Narnol. 7. Kanojia and 8. Sarjupāria or residing beyond the Śarayu. 9. Jajhotia. 10. Tiwari. 11. Srimāli and 12. Pushkarnā or residing at Pushkar in Rājputana. 13. Sindhi. 14. Nāgara (of Ānandpura). 15. Dasor (of Daśapura). 16. Modha (of country formerly named Dharmāraṇya). 17. Gujarāti. 18. Malvi. 19. Bengali. 20. Ooriya. 21. Deshastha. 22. Konkanastha or Chitpāwan (belonging to Chittapolana a town in Ratnagiri District). 23. Karhade (living under the Śilaharas of Karhad). 24. Karṇāṭa. 25. Andhra or Telugu. 26. Tamil and 27. Malyali or Nambudri. These are the main subsections of Brahmins recognisable as named after country of residence; but there are many subdivisions of these again based on various other grounds such as Daśas and Viśas in the north and Aiyars and Ayyangars in the south. For Brahmins divided further from their acceptance of this or that philosophy. The Ayyars are Smārtas i. e. those who look upon Śiva and Viṣṇu as equal, while Ayyangars believe Nārāyaṇa to be the highest god and follow the philosophy of Rāmānuja.

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Later still the followers of Madhva and his Dvaita philosophy became a separate sub-section of Brahmins and were called Āchāryas. These gave up not only intermarriage but in many cases interdining also; though we have no direct mention of these restrictions in the Dharmaśāstras.

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Strangely enough the northern Brahmins were looked upon in the beginning of this sub-period as purer in race as also in Āchāra or religious life and we have evidence, traditional no doubt, of many southern kings inviting northern India Brahmin families to settle in their countries. Thus we find the Sena king Sāmanta or Ballāla inviting Kanaujia Brahmins to settle in Bengal though tradition speaks of these Brahmins as having come in the time of Ādiśūra, a fictitious king of earlier date; and we have mention of Brahmins coming from the north and settling in Orissa also in the days of the Kesari kings. We have mention again of Northern Brahmins being invited to settle in Gujarat by Mūlarāja and even so far south as the Tamil land we have mention of a Chola king inviting and settling in his country Brahmins from Northern India. In all these cases, these Brahmins formed separate sub-castes owing to their unwillingness to mix with local Brahmins, considered to be of lower purity, either in food or marriage. The Nagarakotia Brahmins alone who believe that they were invited by a Katoch king say that they consist of 13 families, 3 of whom were Kashmiri, 3 Kanaujia and 3 Sārasvata, the remaining four being local Brahmins. (These probably were not agriculturalists). The number of sub-castes was thus further increased. Then again we may believe that certain sections of Brahmins migrated to safer lands from the Panjab and the U. P.

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owing to invasions first and then oppression of Mahomedan conquerors. The Gauda Sārasvata Brahmins of Goa territory thus appear to have come from the region of the Sarasvati about this time. It is an unhistorical idea that they came from Bengal, for Guda is a name which originally was applied to the country round Thanesar and the peculiarity of these Brahmins viz. that they eat fish is mentioned even in the Mahābhārata as arising among Brahmins residing on the banks of the Sarasvati during a long famine. The Bengali Brahmins were emigrants from the same ancient country of the Sārasvatas and are also hence called Gauda. We disbelieve the tradition of the Gauda Sārasvatas of Goa coming from Bengal because there is no historical reason why they should have left Bengal and further because their speech does not exhibit any linguistic and phonetic peculiarities of Bengal such as the change of s into sh and a into ō. The Chitpāvans are another section of Konkan Brahmins which has the tradition of coming there from outside. As stated in our Mahābhārata Mīmānsā they from their fair complexion appear to have come from the Panjab hilly districts into the hilly region of the Ratnagiri District after a short halt in the Thana District about Bassein where is the original first Konkan sanctuary of Paraśurāma. These instances will suffice to show that in this sub-period we have evidence of Brahmin families migrating to, or being invited to settle in, southern and eastern countries.

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The example again of Deccani Brahmins going to the Āndhra country in the wake of Chālukya conquest of Vengi and forming a separate sub-section of Brahmins called now Niyogi shows that there may be instances of Brahmin migrations after conquest, as happened in modern history after the conquests of the Marathas. The mode adopted by Nāgara Brahmins of defining their sub-caste by counting their families and their gotras was followed by all these various sub-sections and hence have arisen those hundreds of sub-castes into which Brahmins are now sub-divided and which restrict marriage and food to themselves. All these sub-sections acquired new names from country or town of their residence or from other causes, which became of paramount importance owing to restriction of marriage to each sub-section and gotra and Śākhā became consequently of minor importance. But it must be stated that all the sub-sections of Brahmins appear to have adhered loyally to their ancient Vedic religion. They not only preserved their Veda or Śākhā but also its special ritual and also the memory of their gotras and pravaras and still preserve the gotra and pravara law of marriage prohibition enjoined by the smritis, the gotras and pravaras being enumerated in the Śrauta Sūtras. And hence it is that gotra and pravara among Brahmins and even Kshatriyas remain the same throughout the whole of India though Brahmin and Kshatriya families everywhere acquired new names from curious causes.

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These names became no doubt predominant, but they never acquired so great an importance among Brahmins at least as to destroy the importance of gotra, and the gotra law of marriage is still the supreme law of marriage among Brahmins.

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Many of these subcastes of Brahmins especially in Northern India were then non-vegetarian and they continue so down to this day. Al-Beruni describing the food of Hindus says "Christians are not allowed to kill, so also the Brahmins." The rules given hereafter apply to Brahmins (as Christian rules apply to bishops and monks), but not others. First, strangulation of certain animals only is allowed viz. sheep, goat, gazelle, rhinoceros (genda), water and land birds such as peacock etc.; Second, forbidden animals are ox, camel, horse, elephant &c., tame poultry, fish and all kinds of eggs.

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NOTE:—MARCO POLO ON LAD BRAHMINS.

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The description given by Marco Polo of Brahmins of the country called Lar by him deserves to be quoted and discussed here. Marco Polo travelled in India about 1280 A. D. roughly and wrote about 1300 A. D. Though this account is thus a hundred years later than our period, it cannot be considered inapplicable, as the condition then of the country must have been the same as in 1200, Mahomedan conquest coming later. Speaking of the province of Lar, he says (Marco Polo by Miss Yule Vol. II p. 360) "All Brahmins come from that country on the west. They are best merchants and most truthful. They eat no flesh and drink no wine and lead a life of chastity. They wear a thread of cotton on their shoulders which crosses the breast and the back. They have a rich and powerful king who sends Brahmins to purchase best diamonds in Soli (Chola) and best pearls. They believe in bad and auspicious hours for every week day and transact business only at auspicious times. They are long-lived as they are very abstemious and they have capital teeth owing to a certain herb they chew."

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"There are other brahmins called Chugi (Jogi) who are longer-lived, who are devoted to the idols. They live upto 150 or even 200 years. They eat rice and milk only. They drink a potion of sulphur and quicksilver twice a day which leads to longevity. Some of them are ascetics who go about stark naked. They have a small ox of pewter or gold tied over their forehead. They daub themselves with cowdung ashes. If any one does them good, they put the ashes in the middle of his forehead. They eat from dry leaves of the apple of paradise (plantain?). They would not kill any animal even a fly or a flea. They fast many days and drink nothing but water. They sleep on the ground and yet they live long. They burn their dead."

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Miss Yule observes on this in a note that "Lardeśa included southern Gujarat, Thana and Chaul. Konkani Brahmins adopted trade only when they were expelled from Goa. This high praise of the truthfulness of Brahmins was just and as old as the Greeks. It is not only given by Greek writers but by Hiuen Tsang and also by Arab travellers."

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It is somewhat difficult to determine to whom the above description applies. Lar no doubt according to Arab travellers included Thana and Kolaba districts and had a language of its own called Lari. But Marco Polo later describes the kingdom of Thana separately. We have seen that Śilāhāra kings ruled in Thana. Lardeśa was again distinct from Gujarat which is also separately described by Marco Polo and which with its capital Patan was ruled by Vaghela kings in about 1300 A. D. The language of this part is described again as distinct and peculiar (p. 392). Thus upto 1300 A. D. modern southern Gujarat or Lardeśa was distinct from Northern Gujarat politically as well as in language. The people apparently had a king of their own, though in previous centuries, they were under the Rāshtrakūṭas and later under Western Chālukyas of Kalyan. The Brahmins of Lardeśa are not now, however, known as a separate sub-caste. But probably they were a distinct sub-caste then and went for trade to such distant countries as the countries of Chola and Pāndya which produced diamonds and pearls. The Konkan Brahmins are not much known as traders though their truthfulness as of other Brahmins must have been anciently well known. The surnames Pattavardhana, Ghalisa and Ghaisāsa now found among Konkan and Karhada Brahmins only and mentioned in a Goa Kadamba inscription dated Śaka 1171 or 1249 A. D. (J. R. A. S. Bombay IX p. 243) indicate that these families were traders; what trade these surnames indicated, we are not able to determine. The four Brahmins mentioned in an inscription dated 1190 A. D., of Bhoja II Śilāhāra king of Karhād are named: 1. Adityabhatta 2. Lakshmidharabhatta 3. Karhātaka Prabhākara Ghaisāsa and 4 Vāsiyana Ghaisāsa (gotra nowhere mentioned). The word Karhātaka here plainly indicates a subcaste and Ghaisāsa plainly imports a profession which is not religious. But certainly these did not trade in diamonds and pearls as Marco Polo states. We must, therefore, believe that Lad Brahmins were a distinct sub-caste spread over the whole of southern India who traded in diamonds and pearls and who were known then for their great veracity. It appears that Marco Polo met them in the Pāndya country as he describes Lar Deśa just almost immediately after the Pāndya country. The country named by him as Maabar is certainly the Pāndya country which produced pearls. Of this country he says rightly that "there are no tailors here. All people, men and women, rich and poor, including even the king go about naked with a strip of cloth round their loins. Even the soldiers go to fight naked, with lance and shield," He describes the naked king as distinguished only by the fineness of the loin cloth and the necklace of precious stones, a description which reminds one of that by Kalidāsa in Raghu (पाण्ड्ययमंसर्पितलम्बहारः). The Brahmins of Dravida even now move about almost naked. Marco Polo next describes the kingdom of Mutfili, an inexplicable name; but it is certainly the Andhra kingdom of Warangal as it is described as ruled then by a queen (daughter of Pratāparudra) and as diamonds are said to be found in its mountains, referring probably to the mines of Golkonda. It is in these countries apparently that Marco Polo came across the Brahmins of the Lar country which is described next as lying in the west and which must mean the country of Lāta or modern southern Gujarat.

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The ascetics described seem to be Śaiva ascetics but those with a metal ox on their foreheads can not be Jangamas as they do not burn their dead but bury them. The Vīraśaiva schism (Lingāyat) had no doubt arisen already. But the Lingāyats had probably not yet gone to Konkan or Lāta where even now they are scarcely to be found. These ascetics, therefore, do not now survive as even Miss Yule thinks.

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They again cannot be Jains, though their abstention from all animal slaughter, their injuring not even a fly or a flea and their long fasts may suggest their being Jains. But Jains do not use cowdung ashes nor apply them to the forehead of their disciples. They, therefore, must be Śaiva ascetics of an order which is not now in existence. They perhaps were followers of Lakulīśa whose chief sacred place is near Broach, as already stated. The whole description, therefore, according to our view, does not apply to Konkan Brahmins though it is suggestive of them and applies to Lad Brahmins who are now found, not in South Gujarat, but all over the Deccan including Hyderabad territory and Berar. They are still a mercantile community but are very religious orthodox Brahmins.

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