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History of Mediaeval Hindu India (being a History of India from 600 to 1200 A.D.) v3.c41.s7: New Vaishnavism.

History of Mediaeval Hindu India (being a History of India from 600 to 1200 A.D.) v3.c41.s7

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English

New Vaishnavism.

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In the rest of Northern India we do not find Jainism much in favour with the princes or the people though Jain Vaiśyas were to be found all over the country. Neither under Gāhadavālas, nor under Pālas or Senas, do we find Jainism much in favour. But though Jainism did not prosper in the middle nor in the east of Northern India, the revival of the feeling of Ahimsā was not less strong there than in the west in this sub-period. We have seen that the religion of Buddha received fresh inspiration in Magadha from new teachers and some learned Buddhists went as usual on a preaching mission into Tibet and reformed that religion of peace in Tibet (p. 225). But more marked than this was the revival of Ahimsā doctrine in the appearance of new Vaishnavism. This new Vaishnavism appeared in Bengal at this time with the same intense regard for Ahimsā as was exhibited by Jainism and Buddhism. Indeed new Vaishnavism may be looked upon as Jainism tacked on to the old worship of Śrīkṛiṣhṇa, as Christianity may be described as Buddhism tacked on to Judaism. Buddhism was dead in India at this time except in Magadha. Buddha had been changed into an Avatāra of Viṣhṇu and Buddhists had generally turned into Vaishnavas. Naturally the respect for Ahimsā came back with the force of a returning tide; and Vaishnavism took up Ahimsā as it had never done before. The Bhagavadgītā, no doubt, preached Ahimsā long before the rise of Buddha himself but the Ahimsā of the Bhāgavatas was reconciled as evidenced by the Mahābhārata with Vedic religion of animal sacrifice by the doctrine that slaughter in Vedic sacrifices was no slaughter. But the slaughter of animals in propitiation of the Deity was plainly indefensible and was always the weak point of the Vedic religion as of Judaism and both Jains and Buddhists assailed it with success on this point and their preachers generally scored victory over Hindu or Vedic opponents. New Vaishnavism, by taking up the doctrine of Ahimsā more rigidly than before, disarmed the Jains and thus succeeded in appealing to the common people by returning to their old god Viṣhṇu in the form of Śrīkṛiṣhṇa and by stopping Vedic sacrifices with animal slaughter. This new Vaishnavism not only stopped animal sacrifices but further adopted the Jain doctrine of abstaining from meat diet. From the Indus to the Brahmaputra this new Vaishnavism became predominant at this time (1000-1200) and animal slaughter and animal food was renounced by Vaishnavas. Even now in the Panjab Vaishnava food means meatless food.

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∗ Jains represent that Kuemārapāla was converted to Jainism in old age by Hemachandra and the date assigned is St. 1216 or 1159 A, D. But this does not appear probable for reasons given in chapter 7 Book VII.

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It does not appear that this new Vaishnavism came from the south or was due to the teaching of the Vaishnava Bhāgavata Purāṇa. Nor was its rise due to the teaching of Śankara who was a thorough supporter of the Vedic ritual. Whatever the influencing cause in Northern India, it was certainly not the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, the date of which, we have elsewhere shown, could not be earlier than the tenth century A. D. And we find in Kashmir history king Avantivarman (855-884) a thorough Vaishnava of the new type, prohibiting totally the slaughter of animals in the kingdom of Kashmir (see Vol. I p. 221) as in the old days of Meghavāhana. The Buddhist love for Ahimsā returned again in the ninth century and Avantivarman used his political power for establishing Ahimsā, being himself a devout Vaishnava. The imperial Pratihāra Bhoja was a Parama Vaishnava (Vol. II p. 109) as also his grandson, though we are not quite sure if they were of the type of Avantivarman i. e. total abstainer from animal food and prohibitors of animal slaughter. The Gāhadavālas were worshippers of Lakshmi or Śrī who is invoked in their inscriptions in the beginning and also of Dāmodara. They were practically Smārtas as they are described in inscriptions as Māheśvaras but they are also always described as worshipping Vāsudeva at the time of making land grants. In Magadha, the Pālas were Buddhists and therefore thorough supporters of the doctrine of Ahimsā, but even there we find a queen hearing the whole Mahābhārata recited to her. In Eastern Bengal the Senas were in the beginning devotees of Śiva but Lakshmaṇasena, their most noted king, became a Parama Vaishnava and he must be taken to be a perfect supporter of the doctrine of Ahimsā. He himself must have abstained from flesh, though we have no evidence to hold that he prohibited animal slaughter in his kingdom. His Vaishnavism appears to have come from Jagannātha in Orissa where the new Vaishnavism became dominant at this time for reasons we shall sketch later on. Thus in Northern India at this time, Jainism in the west and Vaishnavism in the north and east became predominant with their doctrine of Ahimsā as their prominent tenet.

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But though this new Vaishnavism and Jainism were at one on the doctrine of Ahimsā, they unfortunately differed most strongly on the question of asceticism. The Hindu world has also swung alternately between asceticism and epicurianism, the philosophy of self-mortification and that of self-indulgence. Śrikrishna’s life practically preached the doctrine of the enjoyment of world’s blessings, though he always preached the value of the golden mean. His worship, however, soon drifted into what may be called for want of a better word, Epicurianism which appeared in Bengal and in Mid-India at this time and soon became popular. While therefore, the new Vaishnavism taught Ahimsā like Jainism, unlike Jainism it taught the enjoyment of worldly blessings. The swing went naturally to the other extreme point of the swing like a pendulum and licentiousness became the leading feature of this new Vaishnavism. The cult of Rādhā worship does not appear to have yet arisen; for Rādhā is not mentioned even in the Bhāgavata. But the amours of Krishna with the Gopis had become the leading doctrine of the Vaishnavas at this time; for even the Bhāgavata the chief new Purāṇa teaching the Vaishnava cult, could not but depict these amours in their objectionable character, concealed in later times under the allegorical cloak of Vedānta. For in the Bhāgavata, a direct question is asked by Parikshit as to whether these immoral deeds of the great are an example to be followed by ordinary beings. Suka does not say in reply in the Bhāgavata that these were mere allegories embodying the yearning of the human soul for the Supreme Soul; but straightly answers that the teachings and not the actions of great men are to be followed. The Bhāgavata, therefore, plainly held these amours to be not only historical, but also unworthy of being imitated. The Rādhā cult was, however, a natural outcome of this belief in the amours of Śrikrishna, as the human mind can not be satisfied without assiging one woman as the object of greatest love and we find Gitagovinda of Jayadeva, a court-poet of Lakshmaṇasena, describing at this time in most enchanting tones the amours of Krishna and Rādhā who is still an adulteress.

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We are not concerned here with the further development of the Rādhā cult wherein she becomes a wife of Krishna; as this belongs to a period later than 1200 A. D. In the days of Lakshmaṇasena this Rādhā cult was just rising and probably the Vaishnavism which came to Bengal in his days from Orissa was without Rādhā. But that it was full of lascivious teaching can not be denied. As we have said above, the Hindu mind had swung at this time towards Epicurianism from asceticism and the extreme prosperity of the Hindu kingdoms at this time tended in the same directions and we have already adverted to the popularity of the Alamkāra Śāstra at thit time. This is a question which has to be carefully sifted yet; but we have no doubt that the Vaishnavism of Bengal and Orissa of this time fully countenanced the legends of the amours of Śrikrishna and the Gopīs, and in general placed enjoyment above asceticism.* Though Vallabha and Chaitanya had still to come and to debase or refine this amorous aspect, the seed was sown at this time. This epicurian aspect of Vaishnavism coupled with its Ahimsā must have appealed more to the people than Jainism and thus prevented the spread of the latter in Northern India.

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New Vaishnavism also appeared in the South at this time; but it was devoid of this debased feature. It took up of course Ahimsā and disarmed Jain criticism. It, however, supported asceticism. It further accepted the revelation of the Vedas and the priesthood of the Brahmins and the Vārnāśramdharma and thus appealed to the orthodox sentiment of the people. It also opposed the philosophy of Śankara which left little room for the practice of devotion which was a dominant doctrine of Vaishnavism from of old and for this purpose had to put a new interpretation on the Upanishads, the Bhagvadgita and the Brahma-sutras, the sacred philosophical books, so to speak, of the orthodox. A new powerful Vaishnava teacher arose at this time in the South. The Tamil land always was, even according to the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, the stronghold of Vaishnavism and Vaishnava saints or Ālavārs sang the praises of Vishnu there from of old as the Śaivite saints the Nāyanārs sang the praises of Śiva. But Vaishnavism had to be supported by a new philosophy opposing that of Śankara and Rāmānuja came forward at this time to do that work. His life is well-known and is well-given in Dr. Bhandarkar's "Vaishnavism". He was born in 1017 A. D. and he first studied under an Advaita (Śaṅkara) philosopher, Yādavaprakāsha, at Kāñchī. Being dissatisfied with his teaching, he applied himself to the study of the Prabandhas of the Ālavārs and "drank in their spirit of devotion." He succeeded Yāmunāchārya as a Vaishṇava teacher at Śrīrangam near Trichinopoly and did his life's work by writing his Bhāshyas on the three sacred books above mentioned. The Chola kings of his time were Śaivas and they wanted him to renounce Vaishṇavism. He thereupon took refuge with the Hoysala king Vishṇuvardhana in Mysore who was inclined towards Jainism (1096 A. D.) and converted him to his faith.

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∗ The obscene figures sculptured on the temple of Jagannāth built by Chodaganga at this time (1150 A. D.) can have no other explanation.

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The teachings of Rāmānuja spread in the south and in later centuries were taken to the north by his future follower Rāmānanda. "His Vaishṇavism is that of the old Pāñcharātra system combined with the Nārāyaṇa and Vishṇu elements. The most prominent name of God with him is Nārāyaṇa and the name Gopāla Kṛishṇa is conspicuous by its absence (p. 57)". Rāmānuja's system is free from the debased cult of Rādhā. He takes up no doubt the Bhakti doctrine of the Bhagavadgītā but it is reduced to the form of a continuous meditation on the Supreme Soul. He has given a Brahmanical form to the traditional doctrine of devotion wherein Śūdras are not regarded as capable of attaining highest Moksha. But in the later school of Rāmānuja from Rāmānanda, the Śūdras asserted themselves (ditto). Thus though Rāmānuja stuck to the orthodox doctrine about the sanctity of the Brahmins, his northern school gave it up and removed its objectionableness on the ground of caste, though it did not give up Varṇa altogether.

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