The Early History of the Deccan (Parts I–XI) v1.c10.s3: The Social and Economic Condition
The Early History of the Deccan (Parts I–XI) v1.c10.s3
- Language
- English
The Social and Economic Condition
v1.c10.s3.1
CONTEMPORARY Smṛitis and Arab writers give us a glimpse into the caste system of the period. Besides the usual four castes, there existed a number of other social groups. Royalty formed a subcaste among the Kshatriyas called the Satkshatriyas (the Sabkufrias of the Arab writers),¹ who were held in even higher regard than the Brāhmaṇas. Ordinary Kshatriyas were on a slightly lower level; they still used to perform many of the rituals laid down for the twice-borns, but Vedic studies were less and less practised among them. The Vaishyas had degenerated to the status of Śūdras and such studies were no longer undertaken by any of them. In the Vākāṭaka-Gupta period intercaste anuloma marriages occasionally took place; they, however, almost disappeared during this period. Intercaste dinners were disapproved by the contemporary Smṛitis and were given up by the Hindu society of this time. A section of the Brāhman community followed its traditional duties and devoted itself to the performance of religious rituals, the exposition of philosophic doctrines, and the teaching of the sacred texts. The recipients of many of the grants recorded on the copper-plates used to perform these duties and were rewarded by the state for doing so. Other Brāhmans used to devote themselves to the study of law, poetry, astronomy, &c., and were employed in state services on the civil side. Some of them conducted schools and colleges and received liberal help from the government and private benevolence. Contemporary Smṛitis permit Brāhmaṇas to follow trade and agriculture, and we may assume that some of them at least availed themselves of this concession. Poor and learned Brāhmans were exempted from taxation, but those who enjoyed grants of land had to pay state dues, though usually at a lower rate than the ordinary cultivators.
v1.c10.s3.2
¹ Elliot and Dowson, History, i, 16.
v1.c10.s3.3
The position of the Śūdras improved considerably. They were doubtless debarred from studying the Vedas, but they became eligible for the Smārta rituals. They were frequently enlisted in the army and many of them rose to be military leaders and petty rulers.
v1.c10.s3.4
Shoemakers, bamboo-workers, fishermen, and washermen were held in low esteem and regarded as semi-untouchables. Sweepers and Chāṇḍālas were also considered as untouchables and had to live outside the cities and villages.
v1.c10.s3.5
The suttee custom was not popular in the Deccan and we hardly come across any instance of either a queen or a commoner immolating herself on the funeral pyre of her husband. Child marriages had become fairly common.
v1.c10.s3.6
in society; girls were usually married before twelve years of age and marriages were arranged by the parents. Widow marriages had gone out of vogue in the higher levels of society, but the widow's right to inherit the property of her husband was being gradually recognized. The *purdah* system had not yet come into existence.
v1.c10.s3.7
The wealth of the Deccan in our period was derived from its agricultural and mineral products and its commerce. Among the agricultural products, cotton was grown in Gujarāt and Berar, *jowar* and *ba'ra* in Mahārāṣṭra and Karṇāṭak, and rice, coconuts, and betelnuts in Koṅkan. Mysore, portions of which were at various times included in the Rāṣṭrakūṭa empire, yielded large quantities of sandal, teak, and ebony woods, which had been exported to western Asia from very early times.
v1.c10.s3.8
There is some evidence to show that copper mines were worked in the districts of Cudappah, Bellary, Bijāpur, Dhārwār, Chanda, and Buldana, but their yield was probably very poor. Far more valuable was the yield of the mines of precious stones in the Golkonda and Ceded Districts. Malkhed, which was so near these mines, must have been a celebrated mart for jewellery.
v1.c10.s3.9
The manufacture of cloth was the principal industry of the Rāṣṭrakūṭa empire. Gujarāt, Berar, and Telaṅgāna were its principal centres. Large quantities were exported to foreign countries.
v1.c10.s3.10
The roads in the Deccan were hilly and therefore pack-bullocks and pack-ponies were the principal means of transport used for articles of commerce. It is rather strange that the Rāṣṭrakūṭas should have issued no state currency of their own. Commercial transactions were carried on either by barter or by the exchange of gold and silver bullion. Some of our records refer to gold coins or *drammas*, given in charity by the reigning emperors. But no Rāṣṭrakūṭa coins in this metal have so far been found.
v1.c10.s3.11
The different trades and industries were organized into their respective guilds; we, however, get no detailed information about the constitution or functions of these from any records of our period. But as the records of both the earlier and later periods specifically refer to them, we may well presume that they continued to flourish in the times of which we are speaking. These guilds used to receive permanent deposits and allow interest on them at about 12 per cent. to be spent for such purposes as may have been specified by the original donors.
v1.c10.s3.12
The records of the contemporary Chōḷa rulers show that 1 rupee would then buy about 32 seers of rice, 25 seers of pulse, 24 seers of curds, 3 seers of ghee, or 75 seers of salt. A cow could be purchased for about a rupee and a buffalo for about twice that amount.
v1.c10.s3.13
Most of the transactions in our period were carried on by barter. Government revenue was usually received in kind and the village officers were paid in grain. A village accountant used to receive about 80 maunds of rice as his annual salary. The carpenter got only about 60 maunds, and the manual labourer about 24 maunds. The latter wage works out at about 3 seers of rice per day. It is therefore clear that the poorer classes could live much more comfortably in the Rāṣṭrakūṭa period than they can do now.¹
v1.c10.s3.14
¹ A. S. Altekar, *Rāṣṭrakūṭas*, chap. xv.