The Ancient Geography of India. I. The Buddhist Period, including the Campaigns of Alexander, and the Travels of Hwen-Thsang c5.s2.t1: 1. Kashmir.

The Ancient Geography of India. I. The Buddhist Period, including the Campaigns of Alexander, and the Travels of Hwen-Thsang c5.s2.t1

Language: English

1. Kashmir.

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Hwen Thsang entered the valley of Kashmir from the west in September, A.D. 631. At the entrance there was a stone gate, where he was met by the younger brother of the king's mother; and after paying his devotions at the sacred monuments, he went to lodge for the night in the monastery of *Hu-se-kia-lo*, or *Hushkara*.* This place is mentioned by Abu Rihân,† who makes *Ushkara* the same as *Barâmula*, which occupied both sides of the river. In the ‘Raja Tarangini’‡ also *Hushkapura* is said to be near *Varâha*, or *Varâhamula*, which is the Sanskrit form of *Barâmula*. *Hushkara* or *Uskar* still exists as a village on the left or eastern bank of the Behat, two miles to the south-east of *Barâmula*. The Kashmiri Brahmans say that this is the *Hushkapura* of the ‘Raja Tarangini,’ which was founded by the Turushka king *Hushka*, about the beginning of the Christian era.

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∗ ‘Raja Tarangini,’ v. 144.

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According to the chronology of the ‘Raja Tarangini,’ the king of Kashmir in A.D. 631 was *Pratâpâditya*; but the mention of his maternal uncle§ shows that there must be some error in the native history, as that king’s father came to the throne in right of his wife, who had no brother. *Pratâpâditya’s* accession must, therefore, have taken place after Hwen Thsang’s departure from Kashmir in A.D. 633, which makes an error of three years in the received chronology. But a much greater difference is shown in the reigns of his sons *Chandrapida* and *Muktapida*, who applied to the Chinese emperor for aid against the Arabs.|| The date of the first application is A.D. 713, while, according to the native chronology, *Chandrapida* reigned from A.D. 680 to 688, which shows an error of not less than twenty-five years. But as the Chinese annals also record that about A.D. 720 the emperor granted the title of king to *Chandrapida*, he must

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* ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ i. 90. † Renaud, ‘Fragments Arabes,’ p. 116. ‡ B. vii. 1310 and 1312. § ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ ii. 90.

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|| Rémusat, ‘Nouveaux Mélanges Asiatiques,’ i. 197.

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have been living as late as the previous year A.D. 719, which makes the error in the Kashmirian chronology amount to exactly thirty-one years. By applying this correction to the dates of his predecessors, the reign of his grandfather, Durlabha, will extend from A.D. 625 to 661. He, therefore, must have been the king who was reigning at the time of Hwen Thsang’s arrival in Kashmir in A.D. 631. Durlabha, who was the son-in-law of his predecessor, is said to have been the son of a Nâga, or Dragon; and the dynasty which he founded is called the Nâga or Karkota dynasty. By this appellation I understand that his family was given to ophiolatry, or serpent-worship, which had been the prevailing religion of Kashmir from time immemorial. Hwen Thsang designates this race as Ki-li-to, which Professor Lassen and M. Stanislas Julien render by Kritya and Kritiya. They were extremely hostile to the Buddhists, who had frequently deprived them of power, and abolished their rights; on which account, says the pilgrim, the king, who was then reigning, had but little faith in Buddha, and cared only for heretics and temples of the Brahmanical gods. This statement is confirmed by the native chronicle, which records that the queen, Ananga-lekha, built a Vihára, or Buddhist monastery, named after herself, Anangabhavana; while the king built a temple to Vishnu, called after himself, Durlabha-swâmina.[*] I infer from this that the queen still adhered to the Buddhist faith of her family, and that the king was, in reality, a Brahmanist, although he may have professed a lukewarm attachment to Buddhism.

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The people of Kashmir are described as good looking, easy and fickle in manner, effeminate and cowardly in disposition, and naturally prone to artifice and deceit. This character they still bear; and to it I may add that they are the dirtiest and most immoral race in India. Hwen Thsang states that the neighbouring kings held the base Kashimiris in such scorn that they refused all alliance with them, and gave them the name of *Ki-li-to* or *Krityas*, which would appear to be a term of contempt applied to evil-minded and mischievous persons, as enemies, traitors, assassins, etc. The term which I have heard used is *Kir-Mlechchhas*, or the "Barbarian *Kiras*," and Wilson gives *Kira* as a name of the valley of Kashmir, and *Kirâh* as the name of the people.

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∗ ‘Raja Tarangini,’ iv. 3 and 5.

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In the seventh century the capital of the country was on the eastern bank of the river, and about 10 *li*, or less than 2 miles, to the north-west of the ancient capital. Abu Rihân* calls the capital *Adishtán*, which is the Sanskrit *Adhisthâna*, or "chief town." This is the present city of Srinagar, which was built by Raja Pravarasena about the beginning of the sixth century, and was, therefore, a new place at the time of Hwen Thsang’s visit. The "old capital" I have already identified with an old site, 2 miles to the south-east of the Takht-i-Sulimân, called *Pándrethán*, which is the corrupt Kashmiri form of *Puránádhisthána*, or "the old chief city." *Pán* is the usual Kashmiri term for "old," as in *Pán Drás*, or "old Dras," to distinguish it from the new village of Drâs, which is lower down the river.† Near the old capital there was a famous *stupa*, which in A.D. 631 enshrined a tooth of Buddha; but before Hwen Thsang’s return to the Panjâb in A.D. 643 the sacred tooth had been given up by the Raja to Harsha Varddhana, the powerful king of Kanoj, who made his demand at the head of an army on the frontier of Kashmir.* As Raja Durlabha was a Brahmanist, the sacrifice of the Buddhist tooth was a real gain to his religion.

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∗ *Reinaud, ‘Fragments Arabes, etc.,’ p. 116.

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† *Wilson altered this spelling to *Payin Drás*, which in Persian signifies "Lower Drâs," in spite of the fact that *Pán Drás* is higher up the river.

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From the earliest times Kashmir has been divided into the two large districts of *Kamrâj* and *Merâj*, the former being the northern half of the valley, below the junction of the Sindh river with the Behat, and the latter the southern half above that junction. The smaller divisions it is unnecessary to mention. But I may note the curious anomaly which a change of religious belief has produced in the use of two of the most distinctive Hindu terms. By the Hindu who worships the sun, the cardinal points are named with reference to the east, as *para*, the “front,” or the “east,” to which he turns in his daily morning worship; *apara*, “behind,” or the “west;” *vâma*, the “left” hand, or the “north;” and *dakshina*, the “right” hand, or the “south.” By the Muhammadan, who turns his face to the west, towards Mecca, these terms are exactly reversed, and *dachin*, which still means the “right” hand in Kashmiri, is now used to denote the “north,” and *kâwar*, or the “left” hand to denote the “south.” Thus, on the Lidar river there is the subdivision of *Dachinpâra* to the north of the stream, and *Kâwarpâra* to the south of it. On the Behat river also, below Barâhmula, the subdivision of *Dachin* lies to the north, and that of Káwar to the south of the stream. This change in the meaning of Dachin from "south" to "north" must have taken place before the time of Akbar, as Abul Fazl* describes Dachinpára as "situated at the foot of a mountain, on the side of Great Tibet," that is to the north of the river Lidar.

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∗ Compare ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ ii. 180 with i. 251.

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The principal ancient cities of Kashmir are the old capital of Srinagari, the new capital called Pravarasenapura; Khágendra-pura and Khunamusha, built before the time of Asoka; Vijipára and Pántasok, which are referred to Asoka himself; Surapura, a restoration of the ancient Kámbuva; Kanishkapura, Hushkapura, and Jushkapura, named after the three Indo-Scythian Princes by whom they were founded; Parihásapura, built by Lalitâditya; Padmapura, named after Padma, the minister of Raja Vrihaspati; and Avantipura, named after Raja Avanti Varmma.

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Srinagari, the old capital of Kashmir prior to the erection of Pravarasenapura, is stated to have been founded by the great Asoka,† who reigned from B.C. 263 to 226. It stood on the site of the present Pándrethán, and is said to have extended along the bank of the river from the foot of the Takht-i-Sulimán to Pántasok, a distance of more than three miles. The oldest temple in Kashmir, on the top of the Takht-i-Sulimân, is identified by the unanimous consent of all the Brahmans of the valley with the temple of Jyeshta Rudra, which was built by Jaloka, the son of Asoka, in Srinagari.‡ This identification is based on the fact that the hill was originally called Jyeshteswara. The old bridge abutments at the village of Pántasok are

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[^ *]: ‘Ayin Akbari,’ ii. 130. [^ †]: ‘Raja Tarangini,’ i. 104. [^ ‡]: ‘Raja Tarangini,’ i. 124.

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also attributed to Asoka; and the other ruins at the same place are said to be the remains of the two *Asokeswara* temples which are noted in the native chronicle of Kashmir. Srinagari was still the capital of the valley in the reign of Pravarasena I., towards the end of the fifth century, when the King erected a famous symbol of the god Siva, named after himself *Pravareswara*. This city still existed in A.D. 631, when the Chinese pilgrim arrived in Kashmir, although it was no longer the capital of the valley. He speaks of the capital of his time as the "new city," and states that the "old city" was situated to the south-east of it, at a distance of ten *li*, or nearly two miles, and to the south of a high mountain. This account describes the relative positions of Pândrethân and the present capital with the lofty hill of Takht-i-Sulimân so exactly, that there can be no hesitation in accepting them as the representatives of the ancient places. The old city was still inhabited between A.D. 913 and 921, when Meru, the minister of Raja Pârtha, erected in *Purânadhisthâna*, that is in the "old capital," a temple named after himself *Meru-Varddhana-swâmi*. This building I have identified with the existing temple of *Pândrethân*, as Kalhan Pandit relates* that, when Raja Abhimanyu set fire to his capital, all the noble buildings "from the temple of *Varddhana Swâmi*, as far as *Bhikshukipâraka*" (or the asylum of mendicants) were destroyed. I attribute the escape of the limestone temple to its fortunate situation in the midst of a tank of water. To this catastrophe I would assign the final desertion of the old capital, as the humble dwellings of the people could not possibly have escaped the destruction.

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∗ See my ‘Temples of Kashmir,’ p. 44; and ‘Raja Tarangini,’ vi. 191.

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tive fire which consumed all the “noble edifices” of the city.

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Pravarasenapura, or the new capital, was built by Raja Pravarasena II. in the beginning of the sixth century. Its site, as already noted, was that of the present capital of Srinagar. This is determined beyond all possibility of doubt by the very clear and distinct data furnished by the Chinese pilgrim Hwen Thsang, and by the Hindu historian Kalhan Pandit. The statements of the first have already been quoted in my account of the old capital; but I may add that Hwen Thsang resided for two whole years in Kashmir, in the Jayendra Vihâra,* or Buddhist monastery, built by Jayendra, the maternal uncle of Pravarasena. The Hindu author describes the city as situated at the confluence of two rivers, and with a hill in the midst of it. This is an exact description of the present Srinagar, in the midst of which stands the hill of Hari Parbat, and through which flows the river Hara, or Ara, to join the Behat at the northern end of the city.†

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The question now arises, how did the new city of Pravarasenapura lose its own name, and assume that of the old city of Srinagari? I think that this difficulty may perhaps be explained by the simple fact that the two cities were actually contiguous, and, as they existed together side by side for upwards of five centuries, the old name, as in the case of Delhi, would naturally have remained in common use with the people, in preference to the new name, as the customary designation of the capital. The old name of Delhi is exactly a case in point. There, new city after new city was built by successive kings, each with the distinctive name of its founder; but as they were all in the immediate vicinity of Delhi itself, the old familiar name still clung to the capital, and each new appellation eventually became absorbed in the one general name of "Delhi." In the same way I believe that the old familiar name of Srinagar eventually swamped the name of the new city of Pravarasenapura.

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∗ ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ i. 96. † ‘Moorcroft’s Travels,’ ii.

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²⁷⁶ I speak also from personal knowledge, as I have twice visited Kashmir.

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The names of *Khâgipura* and *Khunamusha* are referred by Kalhan Pandit* to Raja *Khâgendra*, who, as the sixth predecessor of Asoka, must have reigned about 400 B.C. Wilson and Troyer have identified these two places with the *Kâkapur* and *Gaumoha* of Muhammadan writers. The first is certain, as *Kâkapur* still exists on the left bank of the Behat, at 10 miles to the south of the Takht-i-Sulimân, and 5 miles to the south of Pâmpur. But the identification of *Gaumoha*, wherever that may be, is undoubtedly wrong, as *Khunamusha* is now represented by the large village of *Khunamoh*, which is situated under the hills at 4 miles to the north-east of Pâmpur.

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The old town of *Bij Biâra*, or *Vijipâra*, is situated on both banks of the Behat, at 25 miles to the south-east of the capital. The original name was *Vijaya-pâra*, so called after the ancient temple of *Vijayesa*, which still exists, although its floor is 14 feet below the present level of the surrounding ground. This difference of level shows the accumulation of ruins since the date of its foundation. The people refer its erection to Asoka, B.C. 250, who is stated by Kalhan Pandit* to have pulled down the old brick temple of *Vijayesa*, and to have rebuilt it of stone. This is apparently the same temple that is mentioned in the reign of Arya Raja, some centuries after Christ.†

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∗ ‘Raja Tarangini,’ i. 90.

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† *Ibid.*, ii. 123.

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*Súrapura*, the modern *Súpur* or *Sopur*, is situated on both banks of the Behat, immediately to the west of the Great Wular Lake. It was originally called *Kâmbuva*, and under this name it is mentioned in the chronicles of Kashmir as early as the beginning of the fifth century.‡ It was rebuilt by Sura, the minister of Avanti Varmma, between A.D. 854 and 883, after whom it was called *Súrapura*. From its favourable position at the outlet of the Wular Lake, I think it probable that it is one of the oldest places in Kashmir.

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‡ *Ibid.*, iii. 227.

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*Kanishkapura* was built by the Indo-Scythian prince Kanishka,§ just before the beginning of the Christian era. In the spoken dialects of India it is called *Kanikhpur*, which in Kashmir has been still further corrupted to *Kámpur*. It is situated 10 miles to the south of Srinagar, on the high-road leading to the Pir Panchâl Pass. It is a small village with a *sarai* for travellers, and is now generally known as *Kámpur Sarai*. In the large map of Kashmir by Captain Montgomerie the name is erroneously given as Khanpoor.

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§ *Ibid.*, i. 168.

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*Hushkapura*, which was founded by the Indo-Scythian prince *Hushka*, or *Huvishka*, the brother of Kanishka, would appear to have been the same place as the well-known *Varáhamula*, or *Baráhmula*, on the Behat. Abu Rihân|| calls it “*Ushkar*, which is the town of Barâmula, built on both banks of the river.” It is noted under the same name by the Chinese pilgrim Hwen Thsang, who entered the valley from the west by a stone gate, and halted at the monastery of Hu.se.kia-lo, or Hushkara. The name of Barâmula has now eclipsed the more ancient appellation, which, however, still exists in the village of Uskara, 2 miles to the south-east of the present town, and immediately under the hills. The place has been visited, at my request, by the Rev. G. W. Cowie, who found there a Buddhist stupa still intact. This is probably the same monument that is recorded to have been erected by Raja Lalitâditya* between A.D. 723 and 760. It is again mentioned in the native chronicle† as the residence of the Queen Sugandhâ in A.D. 913. From all these notices, it is certain that the town still bore its original name down to the beginning of the eleventh century, when Abu Rihân mentions both names. But after this time the name of Varâhamula alone is found in the native chronicles, in which it is mentioned during the reigns of Harsha and Sussala, early in the twelfth century. I think it probable that the main portion of the town of Hushkapura was on the left, or south bank of the river, and that Varâhamula was originally a small suburb on the right bank. On the decline of Buddhism, when the monastic establishment at Hushkapura was abandoned, the old town also must have been partially deserted, and most probably it continued to decrease until it was supplanted by the Brahmanical suburb of Varâhamula.

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∗ ‘Raja Tarangini,’ i. 105.

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|| Reinaud, ‘Fragments Arabes, etc.,’ p. 116.

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Jushkapura was founded by the Indo-Scythian prince

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[^ *]: ‘Raja Tarangini,’ iv. 188. [^ †]: Ibid., v. 258.

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Jushka, a brother of Kanishka and Hushka. The Brahmans of Kashmir identify the place with Zukru, or Zukur, which is still a considerable village, 4 miles to the north of the capital. This is evidently the "Schecroh, ville assez considérable," which Troyer and Wilson* have identified with Hushkapura. I visited the place in November, 1847, but the only traces of antiquity that I could discover were a considerable number of stone pillars and mouldings of the style of architecture peculiar to Kashmir, all of which had been trimmed and adapted to Muhammadan tombs and Masjids. Parihâsapura was built by the great Raja Lalitâditya,† who reigned from A.D. 723 to 760. It was situated on the right, or eastern bank of the Behat, near the present village of Sumbal. There are still many traces of walls and broken stones on the neighbouring mounds, which show that a city must once have existed on this spot; but the only considerable remains are a bridge which spans the Behat, and a canal which leads direct towards Sûpur, to avoid the tedious passage by the river through the Wular Lake. As Parihâsapura is not mentioned again in the native chronicle, it must have been neglected very soon after its founder's death. His own grandson, Jayapida, built a new capital named Jayapura, in the midst of a lake, with a citadel, which he named Sri-dwâravati, but which the people always called the "Inner Fort."‡ The position of this place is not known, but I believe that it stood on the left bank of the Behat, immediately opposite to Parihâsapura, where a village named Antar-kot, or the "Inner

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[^ *]: 'Raja Tarangini,' i. 370; Asiat. Res. xv. 23. [^ †]: 'Raja Tarangini,' iv. 194. [^ ‡]: Ibid., iv. 505, 510.

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Fort,” exists to this day. The final destruction of this city is attributed by the people to Sangkara Varmma, who reigned from A.D. 883 to 901. He is said to have removed the stones to his own new city of Sangkarapura, which still exists as Pathan, 7 miles to the south-west of the Sumbal bridge. The great temple at Parihâsa was destroyed by the bigoted Sikandar, who reigned from 1389 to 1413, A.D. Of this temple a curious story is told by the Muhammadan historians. Speaking of Párispur, Abul Fazl* says, “here stood a lofty idolatrous temple which was destroyed by Sikandar. In the ruins was found a plate of copper with an inscription in the Indian language purporting that after the expiration of 1100 years the temple would be destroyed by a person named Sikandar.” The same story is told by Ferishta,† with the addition of the name of the Raja, whom the translator calls Balnat, which is probably a mistake for Laldit, the usual contracted form of Lalitâditya among the Kashmiris. As the difference of time between this prince and Sikandar is barely 700 years, it is strange that the tradition should preserve a date which is so much at variance with the chronology of their own native chronicles.

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Padmapura, now called Pámpur, was founded by Padma, the minister of Raja Vrihaspati, who reigned from A.D. 832 to 844.‡ It is situated on the right bank of the Behat, 8 miles to the south-east of the capital, and about midway on the road to Avantipura. The place is still well inhabited, and its fields of saffron are the most productive in the whole valley.

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∗ ‘Ayin Akbari,’ ii. 135. † Briggs’s ‘Ferishta,’ iv. 465.

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*Avantipura* was founded by Raja *Avanti-Varmma*,* who reigned from A.D. 854 to 833. It is situated on the right bank of the Behat, 17 miles to the south-east of the present capital. There is now only a small village called *Wantipur*; but the remains of two magnificent temples, and the traces of walls on all sides, show that it must have been once an extensive city. The name of *No-nagar*, or the "New Town," which is now attached to the high tract of alluvial table-land on the opposite side of the river, is universally allowed by the people to refer to *Avantipura* itself, which is said to have occupied both banks of the river originally.

Linked texts (2)

Rājataraṅgiṇī — Kalhaṇa, Sanskrit
Tārīkh-i Firishta — Muḥammad Qāsim Hindū Shāh Firishta 1606, Persian