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The Ancient Geography of India. I. The Buddhist Period, including the Campaigns of Alexander, and the Travels of Hwen-Thsang c7: Eastern India.

The Ancient Geography of India. I. The Buddhist Period, including the Campaigns of Alexander, and the Travels of Hwen-Thsang c7

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Contents

Eastern India.

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In the seventh century the division of Eastern India comprised Assam and Bengal proper, together with the Delta of the Ganges, Sambhalpur, Orissa, and Ganjam. Hwen Thsang divides the province into six kingdoms, which he calls *Kâmarupa*, *Samataṭa*, *Tamralipti, Kiraṇa Suvarṇa, Odra, and Ganjam,* and under these names I will now proceed to describe them.

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∗ Hist. Nat. vi. 23 “Hujus incolæ, alio latere, late auri et argenti metalla fodiunt.”

1. Kāmarupa.

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From Puṇḍra Varddhana, or Pubna, in Middle India, the Chinese pilgrim proceeded for 900 *li*, or 150 miles, to the east, and crossing a great river, entered Kia-mo-leu-po, or *Kāmarupa*, which is the Sanskrit name of Assam.† The territory is estimated at 10,000 *li*, 1667 miles, in circuit. This large extent shows that it must have comprised the whole valley of the Brahmâputra river, or modern Assam, together with Kusa-Vihâra, and Butân. The valley of the Brahmâputra was anciently divided into three tracts, which may be described as the Eastern, Middle, and Western districts, namely, Sadiya, Assam proper, and *Kāmrup*. As the last was the most powerful state, and also the nearest to the rest of India, its name came into general use to denote the whole valley. *Kusa-Vihára* was the western division of *Kāmrup* proper; and as it was the richest part of the country, it became for some time the residence of the rajas, whose capital, called Kamatipura, gave its name to the whole province.‡ But the old capital of *Kāmrup* is said to have been Gohati, on the south bank of the Brahmâputra. Now, Kamatipura, the capital of *Kusa-Vihára*, is exactly 150 miles, or 900 *li*, from Pubna,§ but the direction is due north; while Gohati is about twice that distance, or say 1900 *li*, or 317 miles, from Pubna, in a north-east direction. As the position of the former agrees exactly with the distance recorded by the pilgrim, it is almost certain that it must have been the capital of *Kâmrup* in the seventh century. This would seem to be confirmed by the fact that the language of the people differed but slightly from that of Central India. It was therefore not Assamese, and consequently I infer that the capital visited by Hwen Thsang was not *Gohati*, in the valley of the Brahmâputra, but *Kamatipura*, in the Indian district of Kusa-Vihâra. The great river crossed by the pilgrim would therefore be the *Tista*, and not the Brahmâputra.

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∗ See Map No. I. † Julien’s ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ iii. 76. ‡ ‘Ayin Akbari,’ ii.

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³ “*Kamrup*, which is also called *Kamtah*.”

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On the east *Kâmrup* touched the frontiers of the south-western barbarians of the Chinese province of *Shu*; but the route was difficult, and occupied two months. On the south-east the forests were full of wild elephants, which is still the case at the present day. The king was a Brahman, named Bhâskara Varmma, who claimed descent from the god Nârâyana, or Vishnu, and his family had occupied the throne for one thousand generations. He was a staunch Buddhist, and accompanied Harsha Varddhana in his religious procession from Pataliputra to Kanoj, in A.D. 643.

2. Samatata.

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The capital of the kingdom of *Samatata*, or *San-mo-ta-cha*, is placed at from 1200 to 1300 *li*, or from 200 to 217 miles, to the south of *Kâmrup*, and 900 *li*, or 150 miles, to the east of Tâmralipti, or Tamluk.[*] The first position corresponds almost exactly with *Jasar*, or Jessore, which is most probably the place intended. The bearing and distance from Tamluk would take us to the uninhabited part of the *Sundari-vana*, or Sundarbans, between the Huranghâta river and Bakarganj. But in a country so much intersected by watercourses as Lower Bengal, the road distance is about one-fourth greater than the direct distance, measured on the map. Thus, Jessore, which is 103 miles from Dhakka, and 77 miles from Calcutta by road, is only 82 and 62 miles distant from them by direct measurement. Accordingly, Hwen Thsang’s distance of 150 miles by route will not be more than 120 miles by direct measurement on the map, which is only 20 miles in excess of the actual direct distance between Jessore and Tamluk. But as Tamluk is not approachable by land from the east, the pilgrim must have travelled at least one-half of the route by water, and his distance of 150 miles may be accepted as a fair estimate of the mixed route by land and water, which could not be actually measured. The name of Jasar, or “The Bridge,” which has now supplanted the ancient name of Murali, shows the nature of the country, which is so completely intersected by deep watercourses, that before the construction of the present roads and bridges, the chief communication was by boats. Murali, or Jasar, is most probably the Gange regia of Ptolemy.

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∗ Julien’s ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ iii. 81. See Map No. I.

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The country of Samataṭa is mentioned in the inscription of Samudra Gupta on the Allahabad pillar,[*] in which it is coupled with Kâmrup and Nepâl. It is mentioned also in the geographical list of Varâha Mihira, who lived in the beginning of the sixth century.[†] According to Professor Lassen, the name signifies “bas pays littoral,” which accords exactly with Hwen Thsang’s description of it as a low, moist country on the seashore. The inhabitants were short and black, as is the case at the present day with the people of Lower Bengal. From all these concurrent facts, it is certain that Samataṭa must be the Delta of the Ganges; and as the country is described as 3000 *li*, or 500 miles, in circuit, it must have included the whole of the present Delta, or triangular tract between the Bhâgirathi river and the main stream of the Ganges.

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∗ Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vi. 793 ; line 19 of inscription.

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† Dr. Kern’s ‘Brihat-Sanhitâ,’ xiv. 6.

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Hwen Thsang mentions several countries lying to the east of Samataṭa, but as he gives only the general bearings and not the distances, it is not easy to identify the names. The first place is *Shi-li-cha-ta-lo*, which was situated in a valley near the great sea, to the north-east of Samataṭa.* This name is probably intended for *Sri-Kshatra*, or *Sri-Kshetra*, which M. Vivien de Saint-Martin has identified with *Sri-hata*, or *Silhat*, to the north-east of the Gangetic Delta. This town is situated in the valley of the Megna river, and although it is at a considerable distance from the sea, it seems most probable that it is the place intended by the pilgrim. The second country is *Kia-mo-lang-kia*, which was situated beyond the first, to the east, and near a great bay. This place may, I think, be identified with the district of Komilla, in Tipera, to the east of the Megna river, and at the head of the Bay of Bengal. The third country is *To.lo.po.ti*, which was to the east of the last. M. Julien renders the name by *Dwâravati*, but he makes no attempt to identify it. I would, however, suggest that it may be *Talaingvati*, that is, the country of the Talaings, or Pegu. *Vati* is the common termination of the names of the Burmese districts, as Hansavati, Dwayavati, Dinyavati, etc. The next name is *I-shang-na-pu-lo*, which was to the east of the last; then still further to the east was *Mo-ho-chen-po*, and beyond that to the south-west was the kingdom of *Yen-mo-na-cheu*. The first of these names I take to be the country of the *Shán* tribes, or Laos; the second is probably Cochin China or Anam; and the third, which M. Stanislas Julien renders by *Ya-mana-dwipa*, is almost certainly *Yava-dwipa*, or Java.

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∗ Julien’s ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ iii. 82.

3. Tâmralipti.

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The kingdom of *Tan-mo-li-ti*, or Támralipti, is described as 1400 or 1500 *li*, about 250 miles, in circuit.* It was situated on the seashore, and the surface of the country was low and wet. The capital was in a bay, and was accessible both by land and water. *Támralipti* is the Sanskrit name of Tamluk, which is situated on a broad reach or bay of the Rupnârâyan river, 12 miles above its junction with the Hûghli. The district probably comprised the small but fertile tract of country lying to the westward of the Hûghli river, from Bardwân and Kalna on the north to the banks of the Kosai river on the south. From *Tâmalitti*, the Pâli form of the name, came the classical *Tamalites*.

4. Kiraṇa-Suvarna.

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Hwen Thsang places the capital of *Kie-lo-na-su-fa-la-na*, or *Kiraṇa Suvarna*, at 700 *li*, or 117 miles, to the north-west of Tâmralipti, and the same distance to the north-east of *Odra* or Orissa.† As the capital of Orissa in the seventh century was Jájipur on the Vaitarani river, the chief city of Kirana Suvarna must be looked for along the course of the Suvarna-riksha river, somewhere about the districts of Singhbhúm and Barabhúm. But this wild part of India is so little known that I am unable to suggest any particular place as the probable representative of the ancient capital of the country. Bara Bâzâr is the chief town in Barabhûm, and as its position corresponds very closely with that indicated by Hwen Thsang, it may be accepted as the approximate site of the capital in the seventh century. The territory was from 4400 to 4500 *li*, or from 733 to 750 miles, in circuit. It must, therefore, have comprised all the petty hill-states lying between Medinipur and Sirguja on the east and west, and between the sources of the Damuda and Vaitarani on the north and south.

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∗ Julien's ‘Hiouen Thsang,’ iii. 83.

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† Ibid., iii. 84 and 88. See Map No. I.

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This large tract of country is now occupied by a number of wild tribes who are best known by the collective name of Kolhán or Kols. But as the people themselves speak various dialects of two distinct languages, it would appear that they must belong to two different races, of whom the Múnda and the Uraon may be taken as the typical representatives. According to Colonel Dalton,* “the Múndas first occupied the country and had been long settled there when the Uraons made their appearance;” and “though these races are now found in many parts of the country occupying the same villages, cultivating the same fields, celebrating together the same festivals and enjoying the same amusements, they are of totally distinct origin, and cannot intermarry without loss of caste.” This difference of race is confirmed by the decisive test of language, which shows that the Uraons are connected with the Tâmilian races of the south, while the Mûndas belong to the hill men of the north, who are spread over the Himâlayan and Vindhyan mountains from the Indus to the Bay of Bengal.

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∗ Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1866, p. 154.

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The various tribes connected with the Mûndas are enumerated by Colonel Dalton* as the Kuars of Elichpur, the Korewas of Sirguja and Jaspur, the Kherias of Chutia Nâgpur, the Hor of Singhbhûm, the Bhumij of Mânbhûm and Dhalbhûm, and the Sántals of Mânbhûm, Singhbhûm, Katak, Hazâribâgh, and the Bhâgalpur hills. To these he adds the Juangas or Pattuns (leaf-clad) of Keunjar, etc. in the Katak tributary districts, who are isolated from "all other branches of the Mûnda family, and have not themselves the least notion of their connection with them; but their language shows that they are of the same race, and that their nearest kinsmen are the Kherias." The western branches of this race are the Bhils of Malwa and Kânhdes, and the Kolis of Gujarât. To the south of these tribes there is another division of the same race, who are called Suras or Suars. They occupy the northern end of the eastern Ghâts.

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According to Colonel Dalton,† the Ho or Hor tribe of Singhbhûm is "the nucleus of the Mûnda nation." He calls it "the most compact, the purest, the most powerful and most interesting division of the whole race, and in appearance decidedly the best-looking.

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∗ Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1866, 158. I write Sántal in preference to Sonthal, as I believe that the short o is only the peculiar Bengali pronunciation of the long á.

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† Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 1866, 168.

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In their erect carriage and fine manly bearing the Hos look like a people that have maintained and are proud of their independence. Many have features of sufficiently good cast to entitle them to rank as Arians; high noses, large but well-formed mouths, beautiful teeth, and the facial angle as good as in the Hindu races. . . . When the face of the Múnda varies from the Arian or Caucasian type, it appears rather to merge into the Mongolian than the Negro. . . . They are of average stature, and in colour vary from brown to tawny yellow.”

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In the different dialects of the Múnda language ho, hor, horo, or hoko is the term for “man.” The assumption of this name by the people of Singhbhûm is a strong confirmation of Colonel Dalton’s description of the tribe as the most powerful division of the Múnda nation. But they also call themselves Larakas, or the “warriors,” which points to the same conclusion that they are the leading division of the Mûnda race.

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Colonel Dalton gives no explanation of the name of Múnda; but as I find that the head men of the villages are called Múnda or Moto amongst the Hors of Singhbhûm and other divisions of the Mûnda race, I conclude that the Múndas or Motos must once have been the ruling division of the nation. The name of Múnda is found in the Vishnu Purâna* as the appellation of a dynasty of eleven princes who succeeded the Tusháras or Tokhari. In the Vayu Purâna, however, the name is omitted, and we have only Marunda, which is most probably the variant form of another name, Muruṇḍa, as found in two inscriptions of the second and third centuries.* Ptolemy has *Marundai* as the name of a people to the north of the *Ganges*; but to the south of the river he places the *Mandali*, who may be the *Múndas* of Chutia Nâgpur, as their language and country are called *Mundala*. This is only a suggestion; but from the position of the *Mandali* they would seem to be the same people as the *Monedes* of Pliny, who with the *Suari* occupied the inland country to the south of the Palibothri.† As this is the exact position of the country of the *Múndas* and *Suars*, I think it quite certain that they must be the same race as the *Monedes* and *Suari* of Pliny.

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∗ Wilson’s translation, edited by Hall, book iv. 24, and vol. iv. p. 203.

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In another passage Pliny mentions the *Mandei* and *Malli* as occupying the country between the *Calingæ* and the *Ganges*.‡ Amongst the *Malli* there was a mountain named *Mallus*, which would seem to be the same as the famous Mount Maleus of the *Monedes* and *Suari*. I think it highly probable that both names may be intended for the celebrated Mount Mandar, to the south of *Bhágalpur*, which is fabled to have been used by the gods and demons at the churning of the ocean. The *Mandei* I would identify with the inhabitants of the *Mahánadi* river, which is the *Manada* of Ptolemy. The *Malli* or *Malei* would therefore be the same people as Ptolemy's *Mandalæ*, who occupied the right bank of the *Ganges* to the south of Palibothra. Or they may be the people of the *Rájmahal* hills who are called *Maler*, which would appear to be derived from the Kanarese *Male* and the Tâmil *Malei*, a “hill.” It would therefore be equivalent to the Hindu *Pahári* or *Parbatiya*, a “hill man.”

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∗ Samudra Gupta, about A.D. 125; and a copper-plate dated in 214 or A.D. 292. † Hist. Nat. vi. c.

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²² “Ab iis (Palibothris) in interiore situ Monedes et Suari, quorum mons Maleus,” etc. ‡ Hist. Nat. vi. c.

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²¹ “Gentes : Calingæ proximi mari, et supra Mandei Malli, quorum mons Mallus, finisque ejus tractus est Ganges.”

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The *Suari* of Pliny are the *Sabaræ* of Ptolemy, and both may be identified with the aboriginal *Savaras*, or *Suars*, a wild race of wood-cutters, who live in the jangals without any fixed habitations. The country of the *Savaras* is said to begin where that of the *Khonds* ends, and to extend as far south as the Pen-nâr river. But these *Savaras* or *Suars* of the eastern Ghâts are only a single branch of a widely-extended tribe, which is found in large numbers to the south-west of Gwalior and Narwar, and also in southern Rajputâna. The *Savaris* or *Saharias* of the Gwalior territory occupy the jangals on the Kota frontier to the westward of Narwar and Guna. They are found along the course of the Chambal river and its branches, where they meet the Rajputâna *Surrias* of Tod. The name is preserved in the *Soræ Nomades* of Ptolemy, who are placed to the south of the *Kondali* and *Phyllitæ*, or the *Gonds* and *Bhils*. They must therefore be the *Suars* or *Savaras* of central India, who occupy the wild hilly country about the sources of the Wain Gangâ, and who are also found along the valley of the Kistna river. As *Kiraṇa* means a “man of mixed race,” or barbarian, it seems probable that the name of *Kiraṇa Suvarna* may be the original appellation of the barbarian *Suvaras*, or *Suars*.

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In the beginning of the seventh century the king of this country was *She-shang-kia*, or *Śaśáṅka*, who is famed as a great persecutor of Buddhism.¹

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¹ ‘Hiouen Thsang’s Life,’ i. 112 and 235. Also ‘Travels,’ ii. 349, 422, and 468.

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I found a gold coin inscribed with the name of this prince at full length in the ‘Payne Knight Collection’ of the British Museum, and there are a few specimens in other collections.

5. Odra, or Orissa.

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The kingdom of *U-cha*, or *Oḍa*, corresponds exactly with the modern province of *Odra*, or Orissa. By a reference to the ‘Biography of Hiouen Thsang,’* it would appear that the capital of Odra was 700 *li* to the south-west of Tâmralipti, and as this bearing and distance agree with the position of *Jâjipura*, I think that the pilgrim must have returned to Tamluk from *Kiraṇa Suvarṇa* before proceeding to Odra. In the travels of the pilgrim† the bearing and distance are taken from *Kiraṇa Suvarṇa*; but this is perhaps a mistake, as they are usually referred to the capital, which, whether we place it at Jâjipur or at Katak, is due south of *Kiraṇa Suvarṇa*.

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† Julien, iii. 88.

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The province was 7000 *li*, or 1167 miles, in circuit, and was bounded by the great sea on the south-east, where there was a famous seaport town named *Che-li-ta-lo-ching*, or *Charitrapura*, that is, the “town of embarkation” or “departure.” This was probably the present town of *Puri*, or “the city,” near which stands the famous temple of Jagannâth. Outside the town there were five contiguous stupas with towers and pavilions of great height. I presume that it is one of these which is now dedicated to Jagannâth. The three shapeless figures of this god and his brother and sister, Baladeva and Subhadrâ, are simple copies of the symbolical figures of the Buddhist triad, Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, of which the second is always represented as a female. The Buddhist origin of the Jagannâth figures is proved beyond all doubt by their adoption as the representative of the Brahmanical Avatâr of Buddha in the annual almanacs of Mathura and Banâras.

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∗ Julien, i. 184. See Map No. I.

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The political limits of Orissa, under its most powerful kings, are said to have extended to the Hûghli and Damuda rivers on the north, and to the Godâvari on the south. But the ancient province of Odra-desa, or Or-desa, was limited to the valley of the Mahânadi and to the lower course of the Suvarna-riksha river. It comprised the whole of the present districts of Katak (Cuttack) and Sambhalpur, and a portion of Medinipur. It was bounded on the west by Gondwâna, on the north by the wild hill-states of Jashpur and Singhbhûm, on the east by the sea, and on the south by Ganjam. These also must have been the limits in the time of Hwen Thsang, as the measured circuit agrees with his estimate.

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Pliny mentions the Oretes as a people of India in whose country stood Mount Maleus ;* but in another passage he locates this mountain amongst the Monedes and Suari; and in a third passage he places Mount Mallus amongst the Malli. As the last people were to the north of the Calingæ, and as the Monedes and Suari were to the south of the Palibothri, we must look for the Oretes somewhere about the Mahânadi river and its tributaries. The Monedes and Suari must therefore be the Mûndas and Suars, as already noticed, and the Oretes must be the people of Orissa. *Malê* is one of the Dravidian terms for a mountain; and as the Uraons, or people of west Orissa, still speak a Dravidian dialect, it is probable that *Mallus* was not the actual name of the mountain. May not this have been the famous *Sri-Parvat* of Telingâna, which gave its name to the *Sri-Parvatiya* Andhras?

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∗ Hist. Nat. ii. 75. “In Indiæ gente Oretum, mons est Maleus nomine.” See also vi. 22, “Monedes et Suari, quorum mons Mallus;” and vi. 21, “Malli, quorum mons Mallus.”

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The ancient metropolis of the country was *Katak* on the Mahânadi river, but in the early part of the sixth century Raja Jajâti Kesari established a new capital at *Jajâtipura* on the Vaitarani river, which still exists under the abbreviated name of *Jájipura*. The same king also began some of the great temples at Bhuvâneswara; but the city of that name was founded by Lalitendra Kesari. The language and pronunciation of the people is said to have differed from those of central India, which is still true at the present day.

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To the south-west there were two hills, on one of which, called *Pushpagiri*, or the "hill of flowers," there was a monastery of the same name and a stupa of stone, and on the other to the north-west only a stupa. These hills I take to be the famous *Udayagiri* and *Khandagiri*, in which many Buddhist caves and inscriptions have been discovered. These hills are situated 20 miles to the south of *Katak*, and 5 miles to the west of the grand group of temples at Bhuva-neswara. The stupas were said to have been built by demons; from which I infer that the origin of the great caves, and other Buddhist works on these hills was quite unknown at the period of Hwen Thsang's visit.

6. Ganjam.

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From the capital of Odra the pilgrim proceeded to the south-west for 1200 *li*, or 200 miles, to Kong-yu-to.[*] This name has not been identified; but M. Vivien de Saint-Martin has, I think, indicated its true position in the neighbourhood of the Chilka lake. The capital was situated near a bay, or "junction of two seas," which can only be intended for the great Chilka lake and the ocean, as there is no other great sheet of water along this surf-beaten coast. Ganjam itself must therefore be the old capital. But as Ganjam is only 130 miles from *Jájipur* in a direct line measured on the map, or about 150 miles by road, I conclude that the pilgrim must have visited the hills of *Udayagiri* and *Khandagiri* and the town of *Chari-trapura*, or Puri, on his way to Ganjam. By this route the distance would be increased to 165 miles by direct measurement, or about 190 miles by road, which agrees with the estimate of the Chinese pilgrim.

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The Chinese syllables *Kong-yu-to* are rendered by M. Julien as *Konyodha*; but there is no place of this name that I am aware of. I observe that M. Pauthier[†] writes the name *Kiuan-yu-mo*, which would seem to be intended for a transcript of Ganjam, of which the derivation is unknown. Hamilton proposes *ganjam*, "the depot," but this term is never used alone, so far as I am aware, but always in combination, either with the founder's name or with the name of the principal article sold in the place, as Rám-ganj, or “ Râma's market,” Thithár-ganj, the “ brazier's market,” etc. The district was only 1000 li, or 167 miles, in circuit, which shows that the territory was confined to the small valley of the Rasikulya river. But though the domain was small, the state would appear to have been of some consequence, as Hweng Thsang describes the soldiers as brave and bold, and their king as so powerful that the neighbouring states were subject to him, and no one could resist him. From this account I am led to infer that the king of Ganjam, at the time of Hwen Thsang's visit, must have been Lalitendra Kesari of the Orissa annals, who is said to have reigned for nearly sixty years, from A.D. 617 to 676. The pilgrim visited Ganjam in A.D. 639, when this prince was at the very height of his power. But only four years later, when the pilgrim revisited Magadha, he found the great King Harsha Varddhana of Kanoj* had just returned from a successful expedition against the king of Ganjam. The cause of the war is not stated, but as Harsha Varddhana was a staunch Buddhist, while Lalitendra was a devoted Brahmanist, the difference of religion would easily have furnished a sufficient pretext for war. It seems probable that Ganjam was then annexed to the dominions of the Kanoj king, and formed part of the province of Orissa.

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∗ Julien's 'Hiouen Thsang,' iii. 91. See Map No. I.

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† 'Journal Asiatique,' 1839, p. 404. *U-cha*, or *Oda*, in eastern India, is said to be also named *Kiuan-yu-mo*, at which time, therefore, A.D. 650 to 684, it must have become dependent on Odra or Orissa.

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Hwen Thsang notes that the written characters of Ganjam resembled those of central India, but that both the language and the pronunciation were different. This statement proves that the same alphabetical characters were still in use over the greater part of India at as late a date as the middle of the seventh century. It also serves to show that the intercommunications of the Buddhist fraternities throughout India were not yet broken, although they must already have been much restricted by the steady progress of Brahmanism.

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∗ Julien's ‘ Hiouen Thsang,’ i. 236,

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