Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India c13: Appendix C. Correction of Ptolemy's Eastern Longitudes.
Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India c13
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Appendix C. Correction of Ptolemy's Eastern Longitudes.
c13.2
Ptolemy's longitudes are so manifestly in excess of the truth that various methods of rectification have been suggested by different geographers. That of M. Gossellin was to take five-sevenths of Ptolemy's measures, but his system was based upon the assumption that Ptolemy had made an erroneous estimate of the value of the degree both of the equinoctial and Rhodian diaphragms, as detailed by Eratosthenes. But for the geography of Asia, Ptolemy seems to have depended altogether upon the authority of Marinus, the Tyrian geographer, and of Titianus or Maës, a Macedonian merchant. M. Gossellin's method was probably founded upon the average of Ptolemy's errors, deduced from the longitudinal excess of many well-known places. It is in fact an empirical correction of Ptolemy's errors, of the cause of which his theory offers nothing more than a mere guess. The true sources of Ptolemy's errors of longitude have been pointed out so clearly by Sir Henry Rawlinson that I cannot do better than repeat his explanation of them.[*]
c13.3
1st. Upon a line drawn from Hierapolis on the Euphrates to the stone tower he converted road distance into measurement upon the map at a uniform reduction of 1 in 11½ instead of 1 in 8, or perhaps, which would be more accurate upon so long a line, of 1 in 7.
c13.4
∗ 'On the Site of the Atropatenian Ecbatana,' p. 122.
c13.5
2nd. He computed an equatorial degree at 500 instead of 600 Olympic stadia, and thus upon the line of the Itinerary, which he assumed to be about the parallel of Rhodes, he allowed only 400 stadia to a degree, while the true measurement was 480.
c13.6
3rd. In converting the *schœni* of the Itinerary into Olympic stadia, he assumed their uniform identity with the Persian parasang of 3¾ Roman miles, whereas Sir Henry believes the *schœnus* to have been the natural measure of one hour employed by all caravans, both in ancient and modern times, to regulate their daily march, and to have averaged as nearly as possible a distance of 3 British miles.
c13.7
The different corrections to be applied to Ptolemy's eastern longitudes on account of these three errors have been calculated by Sir Henry Rawlinson to amount to *three-tenths*, which is within one-seventieth part of the empirical correction used by M. Gossellin.
c13.8
To show the accuracy of the correction here proposed, I need only refer to the difference of longitude between Taxila and Palibothra, which has been given at p. 10 of this work.
c13.9
The *fraternities* of the Middle Ages, which were so numerous and so varied in their objects, were not all of the same origin. Some were religious, some social, some charitable, and some industrial. The religious guilds, or *gilds*, as they were often called, were associations of laymen for the purpose of performing religious duties, such as the maintenance of a chaplain, the celebration of masses, or the support of a hospital. The social guilds were formed for the purpose of mutual aid and good fellowship, and often included in their objects the relief of the poor, the sick, and the aged. The charitable guilds were established for the purpose of supporting hospitals, almshouses, and other institutions of mercy. The industrial guilds, or *craft guilds*, were associations of men engaged in the same trade or industry, and were formed for the purpose of regulating the trade, protecting the interests of the members, and maintaining the quality of their work.
c13.10
The craft guilds, which became so powerful in the later Middle Ages, were the successors of the earlier *collegia* of the Roman Empire. The *collegia* were associations of artisans and tradesmen, which were recognized by the state and had a legal existence. When the Roman Empire fell, these associations were largely destroyed, but the idea of association for mutual protection and the regulation of trade survived. In the early Middle Ages, the *gilds* began to reappear, and by the twelfth century they were firmly established in many of the cities of Europe.
c13.11
The craft guilds were organized on a democratic basis, and every member had a voice in the management of the guild's affairs. The officers were elected by the members, and the rules and regulations were made by the guild as a whole. The guilds had the power to fix prices, to regulate the hours of labor, and to determine the conditions of apprenticeship. They also had the power to punish members who violated the rules, and to expel those who were guilty of serious offenses. The guilds were thus a powerful force in the economic life of the Middle Ages, and they played an important part in the development of the modern industrial system.
c13.12
The decline of the craft guilds began in the sixteenth century, when the rise of the factory system and the growth of international trade made it difficult for the small, local guilds to compete with the larger and more efficient industrial organizations. The guilds were also weakened by the growth of the power of the state, which began to regulate trade and industry directly, and by the rise of the capitalist class, which sought to break the power of the guilds and to establish a system of free competition. By the end of the eighteenth century, the craft guilds had largely disappeared, but their influence lived on in the trade unions and other labor organizations of the modern world.