Tribes in Ancient India c5: Bibliography

Tribes in Ancient India c5

Language: English

Bibliography

c5.1

Abhidhānacintāmaṇi (Hemacandra) Abhidhānaratnamālā Abhidharmakoṣa (Vasubandhu) Adhyātma Rāmāyaṇa (Kālī Śaṅkar Vidyāratna ed.) Ain-i-Akbari Aitareya Āraṇyaka (Anecdota Oxoniensia) Aitareya Brāhmaṇa Alexander’s Invasion (McCrindle) Altindisches Leben (Zimmer) Amarakoṣa Ancient and Hindu India (V. A. Smith) Ancient Geography of India by Cunningham (Ed. S. N. Majumdar) Ancient India (E. J. Rapson) Ancient India (S. K. Aiyangar) Ancient India as described by Ptolemy (Ed. S. N. Majumdar) Ancient India: its invasion by Alexander the Great (McCrindle) Ancient Indian Historical Tradition (F. E. Pargiter) Aṅguttara Nikāya (P.T.S.) Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Antiquities of Kathiawar and Kacch (Burgess) Apadāna (P.T.S.) Archaeological Survey of India (Annual Reports) Archaeological Survey of South India (Reports) Arthaśāstra, Bārhaspatya (F. W. Thomas) Arthaśāstra, Kauṭilya (R. Shama Śāstrī Ed. and Tr.) Asiatic Researches Aśoka (V. A. Smith) Aśoka (Woolner) Aśokāvadāna Aṣṭādhyāyī, Pāṇini Atharva-Saṃhitā (Whitney & Lanman—Harvard Oriental Series) Atharvaveda Atharvaveda-Saṃhitā (Roth & Whitney—Harvard Oriental Series) Atthasālinī (P.T.S.) Avadāna Śataka Avadānakalpalatā (Bibliotheca Indica Series) Āpastamba Śrauta Sūtra

c5.2

Bālabhārata or Pracaṇḍapāṇḍava of Rājaśekhara (Nirṇayasāgar Press ed.) Barāhasaṃhitā Barhut (Barua) Barhut Inscriptions (Barua & Sinha) Baudhāyana Śrauta Sūtra Bhagavadgītā Bhagavatī Sūtra (Dhanpat Singh ed.) Bhaṭṭikāvyam Bombay Gazetteer Book of the Kindred Sayings, The (P.T.S.)

c5.3

Bṛhatsaṃhitā (Kern) Buddhacarita (Cowell) Buddhavamsa and Cariyāpiṭaka (J.P.T.S., 1882) Buddhavamsa Commentary (P.T.S.) Buddhism (Copleston) Buddhist Conception of Spirits, The (B. C. Law, 2nd ed.) Buddhist India (T. W. Rhys Davids) Buddhist Records of the Western World (S. Beal) Buddhist Suttas (S.B.E., Vol. XI)

c5.4

Calcutta Review Cambridge History of India, The, Vol. I, Ancient India Carmichael Lectures, 1918 and 1921 (D. R. Bhandarkar) Catalogue of Coins (V. A. Smith) Catalogue of Coins in the Punjab Museum, Vol. I (Whitehead) Chinese Buddhism (Edkins) Chronicles of the Kings of Kāśmīr (Stein) Coins of India (Brown) Coins of India (Cunningham) Cōḷas, The (Nīlakaṇṭa Śāstri) Corporate Life in Ancient India (R. C. Majumdar) Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Cūḷavamsa (P.T.S.)

c5.5

Daśakumāracarita Dāṭhāvamsa (Ed. B. C. Law) Der Vrātya: Untersuchungen Über die nichtbrahmanische Religion Altindiens (J. W. Hauer) Dhammapada (Fausböll) Dhammapada Commentary (P.T.S.) Dharmaśāstra (Gautama) Dharmasūtra Dialogues of the Buddha, I-III (S.B.B., II-IV—P.T.S. publication) Dictionary, Goldstücker Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names, I and II (G. P. Malalasekera) Die Sk. Pr. Handschriften der Berliner Bibliothek (Weber) Die Sociale Gliederung (Fick) Digha Nikāya (P.T.S.) Dipavamsa (Oldenberg) Divyāvadāna (Cowell & Neil) Dokumente der Indischen Kunst, Erstes Heft, Malerei, des Citra Lakṣaṇa (Berthold Laufer) Dynasties of the Kali Age (Pargiter) Dynasties of the Kānarese Districts (Fleet)

c5.6

Early History of India, 4th Ed. (V. A. Smith) Early History of Kauśāmbi (N. N. Ghosh) Early History of the Dekkan (R. G. Bhandarkar) Early History of the Vaiṣṇava Sect (H. C. Ray Chaudhuri) Eastern India (Martin) Epigraphia Indica Essays, Analytical, etc. (Wilson) Etude sur la Geog. Grecque (M. V. St. Martin)

c5.8

Gārgi Saṃhitā Gates of India (Holdich) Gauḍalekhamālā (Varendra Research Society) Gauḍavaho Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediaeval India (N. L. Dey) Geographical Essays, I (B. C. Law) Geography of Early Buddhism (B. C. Law) Geschichte der Indischen Litteratur (M. Winternitz) Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien by Taranath (tr. into German by A. Schiefner) Gokarṇa-Bhāgavata Gopatha Brāhmaṇa (Ed. R. L. Mitra.—Bibliotheca Indica Series) Grammar (Pāṇini) Great Epic of India, The (Hopkins) Guide to Nālandā, A (A. Ghosh) Guide to Taxila, A (Sir John Marshall) Gupta Coins (Allan)

c5.9

Harivaṃśa Harṣacarita (Bāṇa) Harsha (R. K. Mookerjee) Heart of Jainism (S. Stevenson) Hinduism and Buddhism, I-III (Sir Charles Eliot) Hiraṇyakeśī Śrauta Sūtra Historical Gleanings (B. C. Law) Historical Inscriptions of Southern India (Sewell) History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature (Max Müller) History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon (V. A. Smith) History of India as told by her own Historians (Elliot) History of Indian Architecture (G. Fergusson) History of Indian Literature (Max Müller) History of Indian Literature (Weber) History of Indian Logic (S. Vidyābhūṣaṇa) History of Pāli Literature, A, I & II (B. C. Law) History of Sanskrit Literature (Macdonell) History of the Bengali Language (B. C. Majumdar)

c5.10

Iconographie Bouddhique de l’Inde (M. Foucher) Imperial Gazetteers of India Index to the names in the Mahābhārata (Sorensen) India (Alberuni) India as described in Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism (B. C. Law) India, What can it teach us? (Max Müller) Indian Antiquary Indian Coins (Rapson) Indian Culture Indian Historical Quarterly Indica (Arrian) Indiens Literatur und Cultur (Von Schroeder) Indische Alterthumskunde (Lassen) Indische Studien (Weber) Indo-Aryan Races (R. P. Chanda) Inscriptions of Aśoka (Bhandarkar and Majumdar)

c5.11

Inscriptions of Bengal (Varendra Research Society) Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings (J. F. Fleet)

c5.12

Jaiminīya Upaniṣad Brāhmaṇa Jaina Sūtras I & II (Jacobi, S.B.E. Vols. XXII & XLV) Jātaka (Cowell and Fausböll)—All the volumes Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (J.A.S.B.) Journal of the Buddhist Text Society Journal of the Department of Letters, Calcutta University Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (J.R.A.S.) Journal of the U.P. Historical Society

c5.13

Kalpasūtra and Nirayāvali sūtra Kāmasūtra, Vātsāyana (Punjab ed.) Karatoyāmāhātmya Karmaśataka (M. L. Feer) Karpūramañjarī (Sten Konow) Kāṭhaka-Saṃhitā Kathāsaritsāgara (Durgaprasad and Kaśināth) Kathāvatthu (P.T.S.) Kauśāmbi in Ancient Literature, M.A.S.I. No. 60 (B. C. Law) Kauśītaki Upaniṣad Kāvyamīmāṃsā (Rājaśekhara) (Gaekwad’s Oriental Series) Khuddakapāṭha Commentary (P.T.S.)

c5.14

Lalitavistara (Lefmann) Lalitavistara (R. L. Mitra—Bibliotheca Indica Series) L’art Graeco Bouddhique der Gāndhāra (J. Foucher) Lāṭyāyana Śrauta Sūtra Laws of Manu, S.B.E. (Bühler) Lé Mahāvastu (Senart) Lé Nepal (S. Lévi) Life and Work of Buddhaghosa, The (B. C. Law) Life of Hiuen Tsang (Beal) Life of the Buddha, The (Rockhill) List of Southern Inscriptions (Keilhorn)

c5.15

Mahābhārata (Vaṅgavāsī ed.) Mahābhārata (M. N. Dutta tr.) Mahābhārata, Vanaparva (Mahārājā Burdwan’s ed.) Mahābhāṣya (Patañjali) Mahābodhivamsa (P.T.S.) Mahāvaṃsa, P.T.S. (Geiger) Mahāvaṃsa Ṭīkā (Sinhalese ed.) Mahāvīra: His Life and Teachings (B. C. Law) Majjhima Nikāya (P.T.S.) Mānasī Mānava Dharmaśāstra (J. Jolly) Manimēkhalai Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa (Gaṇapati Śāstri ed.) Manorathapurāṇī (P.T.S. and Sinhalese eds.) Manual of Buddhism (Spence Hardy) Manual of Indian Buddhism (Kern)

c5.16

Manusamhitā Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa (Pargiter) Memoirs of Central India (Malcolm) Milindapañho (Trenckner) Minor Anthologies of the Pāli Canon, The (B. C. Law—S.B.B., P.T.S. publication) Modern Review Mudrārākṣasa (Viśākhadatta) Mysore and Coorg from Inscriptions (Rice)

c5.17

Natural History (Pliny) Nepāl Vamśāvalī Niddesa (P.T.S.) Nirukta (Yāska) Numismatic Chronicle

c5.18

Old Brāhmī Inscriptions in the Udayagiri and Khaṇḍagiri Caves (B. M. Barua) On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India (T. Watters) Origin and Development of the Bengali Language, The (S. K. Chatterjee) Origin of the Bengali Script, The (R. D. Banerjee)

c5.19

Pāli Grammar by Kaccāyana (Ed. S. C. Vidyābhūṣaṇa) Pañchālas and their capital Ahichchhatra, M.A.S.I. No. 67 (B. C. Law) Pāṇini (Goldstücker) Papañcasūdani (P.T.S.) Paramatthadipani on the Petavatthu (P.T.S.) Paramatthadipani on the Theragāthā (P.T.S.) Pariśiṣṭaparvan (Jacobi) Pāṭaliputra (Manoranjan Ghosh) Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, The (Schoff) Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed. (H. C. Ray Chaudhuri) Prabodhacandrodaya Prācīna Mudrā (R. D. Banerjee) Pratijñāyaugandharāyaṇa (Bhāsa) Psalms of the Brethren (P.T.S.) Psalms of the Sisters (P.T.S.) Public Administration in Ancient India (P. N. Banerjee) Pūjāvaliya (Sinhalese ed.) Purāṇas—all.

c5.20

Questions of King Milinda (S.B.E.).

c5.21

Raghuvamśa Rājatarangiṇī (Stein) Rājagṛha in Ancient Literature, M.A.S.I. No. 58 (B. C. Law) Rājgir and its neighbourhood (D. N. Sen) Rāmacarita Rāmāyaṇa (Bombay and Vaṅgavāsī eds.) Rāmāyaṇa (Griffith’s tr.) Ratnāvalī and Priyadarśikā (Harṣa) Records of the Buddhist Religion (I-tsing) Ṛgveda (Wilson’s tr.) Ṛgveda Brāhmaṇa (Keith) Romantic Legend of Śākya Buddha, The (Beal).

c5.22

Samantapāsādikā (P.T.S.) Saṃhitopaniṣad Brāhmaṇa Samyutta Nikāya (P.T.S.) Sāṅkhāyana Āraṇyaka (Keith) Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Monier-Williams) Sanskrit Texts (Muir) Sāratthapakāsinī (P.T.S.) Śāsanavaṃsa (P.T.S.) Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (Eggeling, S.B.E.) Saundarananda-Kāvya (B. C. Law’s tr.) Selections from the Mahābhārata (Johnson) Shan-hsien-lü Śīrikalpasūtram (Bhavnagar ed.) Social Organisation in North-East India in Buddha’s time (Fick) Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India (B. C. Law) South Indian Epigraphy, Annual Reports of South Indian Inscriptions (Hultzsch) Śrāvastī in Indian Literature, M.A.S.I., No. 50 (B. C. Law) Sthavirāvali-charita (Hemchandra) Studies in Indian Antiquities (H. C. Ray Chaudhuri) Study of the Mahāvastu, A (B. C. Law) Successors of the Sātavāhanas (D. C. Sircar) Sumaṅgalavilāsinī (P.T.S.) Suttanipāta (P.T.S.) Suttanipāta Commentary (P.T.S.) Svapnavāsavadattā (Bhāsa) (Sukhthankar’s tr.)

c5.23

Taittiriya Brāhmaṇa Taittiriya Saṃhitā Thera-Therigāthā (P.T.S.) Therigāthā Commentary (P.T.S.) Thūpavaṃsa (P.T.S.) Travels of Fā-Hien (Legge) Travels of Fā-Hien and Sung-Yun (S. Beal)

c5.24

Udāna (P.T.S.) Udāna Commentary (P.T.S.) Udāna-vaṇṇanā (Siamese ed.) University of Nālandā, The (H. D. Sankalia) Upaniṣads—all Uttarādhyayana Sūtra (J. Charpentier) Uvāsagadasāo (Hoernle)

c5.25

Vaijayanti (G. Oppert) Vaiṣṇavism, Śaivism and Minor Religious Systems (R. G. Bhandarkar) Vājasaneyī-Saṃhitā Vaṃsatthapakāsinī (P.T.S.) Vāṅgālār Itihāsa (R. D. Banerjee) Veda of the Black Yajus’ School (Keith) Vedic Index (Macdonell and Keith) Vedic Mythology (Macdonell) Vimānavatthu Commentary (P.T.S.) Vinaya Piṭaka (Oldenberg)

c5.26

Vinaya Texts, I-III (S.B.E.) Viṣṇudharmottara Mahāpurāṇa Viṣṇupurāṇa (Wilson's ed.) Vividha-tīrtha-kalpa (Singhee Jaina Granthamālā Series)

c5.27

Zur Litteratur und Geschichte des Weda (Roth)

c5.28

The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

c5.29

These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

c5.30

The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

c5.31

By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

c5.32

The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.

c5.33

THE KĀMBOJAS

c5.34

The Kāmbojas appear to have been one of the early Vedic tribes. The earliest mention of them occurs in a list of ancient Vedic teachers given in the *Vamśa Brāhmaṇa* of the *Sāmaveda*, where we find one of the teachers to be Kāmboja Aupamanyava, i.e., Kāmboja, the son of Upamanyu (*Vamśa Brāhmaṇa*, edited by Pundit Satyavrata Sāmaśramī). We are told that the sage Ānandaja received the Vedic learning from Śāmba, son of Śarkarākṣa, and also from Kāmboja, son of Upamanyu. It is interesting to note that he received this instruction from two teachers, whereas one teacher only was the usual rule. From the order in which the names are given, Śāmba appears to have been his first teacher, and the Kāmboja teacher must have been approached later, perhaps because he was distinguished for special pre-eminence in Vedic learning. We lay stress on this fact because it shows that the Kāmbojas, in early Vedic times, must have been a Vedic Indian people, and not Iranian, as has been supposed by several scholars. From the list of teachers we also find that both the teachers of Ānandaja had received their education in Vedic lore from the same sage, viz., Madragāra Śauṅgāyani, whose name shows that he belonged to the Madra people.¹ This connection between the Madras and the Kāmbojas is natural, as they were close neighbours in the N.W. of India.

c5.35

¹ *Vedic Index*, I, p. 138.

c5.36

The Kāmbojas are not mentioned in the *Ṛgveda* itself, but indirect evidence may help to justify the assumption that they were included among the Vedic Aryans in the Ṛgvedic era. A sage Upamanyu is mentioned at *Ṛgveda*, I, 102, 9, and it is not unreasonable to conjecture that he may have been the father of the Kāmboja teacher of the *Vamśa Brāhmaṇa* list. Such a possibility is suggested by Zimmer.²

c5.37

² *Altindisches Leben*, p. 102.

c5.38

The next important mention of the Kāmbojas is in a passage of Yāska’s *Nirukta* (II, 8), which shows that they spoke a dialect of the Vedic tongue differing in some respects from the standard language, which in Yāska’s time was apparently in language of the Madhyadeśa, the region around the Ganges-Jumna Doab. The Kāmbojas appear from Yāska’s remarks to have been a Vedic people who had retained the original sense of an ancient verb (*śavati*) while it was lost among other sections of the same people, who were separated from them by geographical barriers. Sir George Grierson, however, deduces from Yāska's remarks that, as *śavati* is an Iranian, not a Sanskrit, word, the Kāmbojas cannot have been Indo-Aryans. He holds that they either spoke Sanskrit with an infusion of Iranian words to which they gave Indian inflexions, or else spoke a language partly Indo-Aryan and partly Iranian.¹

c5.39

¹ *J.R.A.S.*, 1911, pp. 801-2.

c5.40

Yāska also attempts a (pseudo-) philological explanation of the name Kāmboja, by connecting it with Kambala, 'blanket', and further with the root *Kam*, to love, enjoy. He suggests that the Kāmbojas may have been so called because they were Kamanīyabhojas or 'enjoyers of pleasant things', and adds that a Kambala is a pleasant thing. Though we cannot take this etymology seriously, there can be no doubt that the warm blanket, Kambala, was a pleasant thing to a people living in the rigorous climate of the N.W. highlands.

c5.41

The Kambalas or blankets manufactured by the Kāmbojas are referred to in the *Mahābhārata*, which tells us that at the great Rājasūya sacrifice, the Kāmboja king presented to Yudhiṣṭhira 'many of the best kinds of skins, woollen blankets, blankets made of the fur of animals living in burrows in the earth, and also of cats—all inlaid with threads of gold' (*Sabhāparvan*, Chap. 51, 3); and again, 'The king of Kāmboja sent to him hundreds and thousands of black, dark and red skins of the deer called Kadali, and also blankets (*Kambala*) of excellent texture' (*Sabhāparvan*, Chap. 48, 19).

c5.42

The next mention of the Kāmbojas is made by Pāṇini. His Sūtra (IV, 1, 175) lays down the rule that the word Kāmboja denotes not only the Kāmboja country or tribe, but also the Kāmboja king.

c5.43

With regard to the location of Kāmboja, Rhys Davids says that it was a country in the extreme N.W. of India, with Dvārakā as its capital.² Dr. S. K. Aiyangar places it in the territory answering to the modern Sindh and Gujarat³ and Dr. P. N. Banerjee too in his *Public Administration in Ancient India* (p. 56) assigns Kāmboja to a country near modern Sindh. Both these writers agree with Prof. Rhys Davids in locating the capital at Dvārakā. Kāmboja is mentioned in *Petavatthu* (II, 9, 1), but from the commentary on that passage (*PvA*, 111) it appears that Dvārakā is *not* its capital.⁴ V. A. Smith seems to place the Kāmbojas among the mountains either of Tibet or of the Hindu Kush. He further says that they are supposed to have spoken an Iranian tongue (*Early History of India*, 4th Ed., p. 193 and f.n. 1). According to McCrindle, Kamboja was Afghanisthan, the Kaofu (Kambu) of Hsüan Tsang (McCrindle, *Alexander’s Invasion*, p. 38). In the *Vedic Index*, it is stated that the Kāmbojas were settled to the N.W. of the Indus and were the Kambujiya of the old Persian inscriptions (see also D. R. Bhandarkar, *Carmichael Lectures*, 1918, pp. 54-5). According to Sir Charles Eliot (*Hinduism and Buddhism*, Vol. I, p. 268), the Kāmbojas were probably Tibetans; in another volume of the same work,¹ he calls them an ambiguous race who were perhaps the inhabitants of Tibet or its border lands. M. Foucher in his *Iconographie Bouddhique* (p. 134) points out that the Nepalese tradition applies the name Kambojadeśa to Tibet. Doubtful would be the attempt to connect Cambyses (O.P. Ka(m)bujiya) with the frontier people of Kāmboja.² Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri³ points out that from a passage of the *Mahābhārata* we learn that a place called Rājapura was the home of the Kāmbojas (*Mbh.*, VII, 4-5, ‘*Karṇa Rājapuraṃ gatvā Kamboja nirjitāstyayā’*). The association of the Kāmbojas with the Gāndhāras enables us to identify this Rājapura with Rājapura of Hsüan Tsang (Watters, *On Yuan Chwang*, Vol. I, p. 284), which lay to the S. or S.E. of Punach.⁴

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² Rhys Davids, *Buddhist India*, p. 28.

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³ *Ancient India*, p. 7.

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⁴ See also B. C. Law, 'Buddhist Conception of Spirits (2nd Ed.), p. 102.

c5.47

¹ Vol. III, p. 6.

c5.48

² *Cambridge History of India*, Ancient India, p. 334, f.n.

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³ *Political History of India from the accession of Parikshit to the coronation of Bimbisāra*, p. 77.

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⁴ R. D. Banerjee refers to a Kamboja or Cambodia on the east side of Samataṭa (Bengal), which must be identical with Sir Charles Eliot’s Camboja, as distinct from Kamboja.

c5.51

Pāṇini belonged to the north-west quarter of India and hence had an accurate knowledge of the customs and dress of the Kāmbojas. The *Mayūravyaṃśakādigaṇa* of Pāṇini speaks of the Kāmbojas as *muṇḍa* or shaven-headed. Apparently the Kāmbojas were in the habit of completely shaving their heads, as would also appear from a passage quoted by Raghunandana from the *Harivaṃśa* and pointed out by Max Müller⁵: ‘The Sakas (Scythians) have half their head shorn, the Yavanas (Greeks?) and Kāmbojas the whole, the Pāradas (inhabitants of Paradene) wear their hair free, and the Pahlavas (Persians) wear beards’.

c5.52

⁵ *History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature*, p. 28.

c5.53

Coming to the Pāli Buddhist literature we find the Kāmboja country spoken of several times in the canonical texts as one of the sixteen great States (*Mahājanapadas*) that were most prominent in India about the time of the Buddha (see, e.g. *Aṅguttara Nikāya*, Vol. I, p. 213; Vol. IV, p. 252-6).

c5.54

In the *Harivaṃśa*, we find that the people of Kāmboja were formerly Kṣatriyas. It was Sagara who caused them to give up their own religion (*Harivaṃśa*, 14). From verses 43 and 44 of Chap. X of the *Manu-saṃhitā*, we find that the Kāmbojas, Śakas, Yavanas, and other Kṣatriya tribes were gradually degraded to the condition of Śūdras on account of their omission of the sacred rites, and of their not consulting the Brahmins. Kauṭilya’s *Arthaśāstra* states that the corporations of warriors (*kṣatriya-śreṇī*) of Kāmboja and other countries lived by agriculture, trade and profession of arms (*Vārtāśastropajīvin*).¹

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¹ *Arthaśāstra*, trsl. by Shāma Shāstrī, p. 455.

c5.56

The horses of Kāmboja were famous throughout all periods of Indian history. In the *Sumaṅgalavilāsinī*, Kāmboja is spoken of as the home of horses (*Kāmbojo assānaṃ āyatanam*).² The *Mahābhārata* is full of references to the excellent horses of Kāmboja. In the *Sabhāparvan* (51, 4), we read that the king of Kāmboja presented to Yudhiṣṭhira three hundred horses of variegated colours, speckled like the partridge and having fine noses like the *śuka* bird. In the great battle of Kurukṣetra, the fast and powerful horses of Kāmboja were of the utmost service.³

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² I, 124.

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³ See, e.g. Mbh., Bhīṣmaparvan, 71, 13; 90, 3; Droṇaparvan, 22, 7; 22, 22-3; 22, 42; Karṇaparvan, 38, 13; Sauptikaparvan, 13, 12.

c5.59

The Jaina *Uttarādhyayana Sūtra*⁴ tells us that a trained Kambojan horse excels all other horses in speed, and no noise can frighten it. In the *Campeyya Jātaka*⁵ we read that a king of Kāśī, being requested by a Nāga king to visit his abode, ordered well-trained Kambojan horses to be yoked to his chariot.⁶ Viṣṇuvardhana, who later became ruler of Mysore, owned Kambojan horses, which were evidently much coveted for their speed.⁷ The *Aṭṭhakathā* on the *Kunāla Jātaka* furnishes us with the interesting piece of information that the Kāmbojas were in the habit of capturing horses in the forest by tempting them into an enclosed space by means of aquatic plants which they smeared with honey.⁸

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⁴ Jaina Sūtras, S.B.E., pt. II, p. 47.

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⁵ Jātaka (Fausböll), Vol. IV, p. 464.

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⁶ See also Mahāvastu, II, p. 185.

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⁷ S. K. Aiyangar, Ancient India, p. 236.

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⁸ Jātaka, V, 446.

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In the *Raghuvaṃśa*, Kālidāsa makes Raghu meet the Kāmbojas after defeating the Hūṇas on the bank of the Vaṅkṣu or the Oxus. The Kāmbojas, being unable to meet the prowess of Raghu, bowed low before him, just as their walnut trees were bent down on account of Raghu’s elephants being tied to them. An immense treasure including excellent horses was offered as tribute to Raghu by the Kāmbojas.⁹

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⁹ Raghuvaṃśa, IV, 69-70.

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THE KĀMBOJAS

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The Kāmbojas occupy a prominent place among the Kṣatriya tribes of the *Mahābhārata*. In the geographical enumeration of the peoples of India, the Kāmbojas are located in the north.¹ They were the allies of Duryodhana, and by their bravery, and especially through the prowess of their king Sudakṣiṇa, they rendered great service to the Kuru side in the Kurukṣetra war. Sudakṣiṇa was one of the few Mahārathas or great heroes in the field.

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¹ *Mbh.*, *Bhīṣmaparvan*, Chap. 9.

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Drupada advised Yudhiṣṭhira to ask the Kāmbojas and other tribes on the western frontiers for their assistance,² but the Pāṇḍavas were not able to obtain their alliance. Duryodhana was more successful, perhaps through his kinship with the neighbouring Gāndhāras, and later boasted to the Pāṇḍavas of his alliance with the Kāmbojas and other northern peoples.³ He gives an important place to the Kāmbojas by mentioning them together with the greatest heroes on his side (see *Mbh.*, Chap. 160, 40). Bhīṣma too extols the prowess of the Kāmboja king, Sudakṣiṇa, of whom he says, ‘In my opinion Sudakṣiṇa of Kāmboja is equal to one Ratha. The best of the chariot-warriors under him are strikers with fierce force. The Kāmbojas, O great king, will cover the land like a swarm of locusts’ (*Mbh.*, *Udyogaparvan*, Chap. 165, 1–3).

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² *Mbh.*, *Udyogaparvan*, 18.

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³ ‘Udīcya Kāmbojaśakaiḥ Khaśaiśca’ (*Mbh.*, *Udyogaparvan*, Chap. 160).

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When the Kaurava army took up their position on the field, the Kāmbojas occupied the van of Duryodhana’s army, along with the home forces of the Pauravas themselves. We are told: ‘The Pauravas, the Kaliṅgas and the Kāmbojas with their king Sudakṣiṇa and Kṣemadhanvā and Śalya took up their positions in front of Duryodhana’ (*Mbh.*, *Bhīṣmaparvan*, Chap. 17, 26-7).

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The Kāmbojas appear to have been consistently in the thickest of the fight.⁴ Their king Sudakṣiṇa was eventually killed in a duel with Arjuna. The verses which describe him as he lay slain on the battle-field are worth quoting for their poetic imagery: ‘Like a charming Karṇikara tree,—which in the spring grows gracefully on the top of a hill, with beautiful branches,—lying in the grove when uprooted by the tempest, the prince of the Kāmbojas, accustomed to sleep on the most precious bed, lay lifeless on the bare ground. Adorned with precious ornaments, graceful, possessing eyes of coppery hue, wearing around his head a tiara of gold radiant like the flames of fire, the mighty armed Sudakṣiṇa, prince of the Kāmbojas, felled by Pārtha with his arrows, and lying dead on the ground, appeared beautiful like a charming hill with a flat summit.’⁵

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⁴ See *Bhīṣmaparvan*, Chap. 45, 66–8; Chap. 56, 7; Chap. 75, 17; Chap. 87, 10; also *Droṇaparvan*, Chap. 7, 14; 19, 7.

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⁵ *Mbh.*, *Droṇaparvan*, Chap. 92, 61–75.

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In the fierce battle that ensued, when Sātyaki, urged on by Yudhiṣṭhira, was following in the track of Arjuna, the Kāmbojas arrested his progress. Then, we are told, Sātyaki slew thousands of the Kāmbojas, worked havoc among them, and pressed onward.¹

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¹ *Mbh.*, Chap. III, 59-60; *Droṇaparvan*, 119, 51; 118, 9.

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Again, when Karṇa assumed the leadership of the Kuru army, the Kāmbojas were there taking an active part by his side²; and even after Sudakṣiṇa’s younger brother had laid down his life for the cause,³ we still hear of the Kāmbojas delivering an attack on Arjuna.⁴

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² *Ibid.*, *Karṇaparvan*, Chap. 46, 15.

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³ *Ibid.*, *Karṇaparvan*, Chap. 56.

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⁴ *Ibid.*, Chap. 88. See also *Śalyaparvan*, Chap. I, 26; Chap. 8, 25.

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We thus find the Kāmbojas leading a large army to the field of Kurukṣetra and laying down their lives like the valiant Kṣatriyas. Afterwards it appears from the later sections of the *Mahābhārata*, viz. the *Śānti* and *Anuśāsanika parvans*, that their country had been overrun by barbarous hordes, so that the ancient Kṣatriya population was overwhelmed, and we find the Kāmbojas ranked with the Yavanas and looked down upon as one of the barbarous peoples. Thus a verse of the *Śāntiparvan* enumerates the Kāmbojas along with many peoples not included in what we may call ‘Indo-Aryan society’,⁵ and in another chapter they are placed among the barbarous peoples of the Uttarāpatha (northern regions).⁶ The *Anuśāsanika-parvan* (33, 21) speaks of the Kāmbojas as having been degraded to the rank of Śūdras for want of Brāhmaṇas in their country. These passages go to show that at the time when these parvans were added to the Epic, the Kāmbojas were losing touch with Brahmanical society, probably owing to admixture with uncivilised invaders from the North.

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⁵ *Ibid.*, *Śāntiparvan*, Chap. 65, 14.

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⁶ *Ibid.*, 207, 43-4.

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Turning to the other great epic, we read in the *Ādi Kāṇḍa* of the *Rāmāyaṇa* that the Kāmbojas were created by the divine cow Sabalā, at the request of Vasiṣṭha (20-24). The *Kiṣkindhyā Kāṇḍa* (Chap. 43) tells us that Sugrīva sent a monkey named Sugrīva to North India in search of Kāmboja and other countries (11-12).

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The *Vāyupurāṇa* informs us that after killing the Haihayas, King Sagara was engaged in annihilating the Kāmbojas, Śakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and others. All these tribes, however, secured the aid of Vasiṣṭha, Sagara’s spiritual preceptor. Listening to the words of Vasiṣṭha, Sagara set the Kāmbojas free after having completely shaven their heads (Vaṅgavāsī Edition, Chap. 88). It is stated in the *Harivaṃśa* that the Ikṣvāku King Vāhu was dethroned by Kāmbojas and others (Chaps. 13, 14).

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In the *Jātakas* we read that the Kāmbojas were a N.W. tribe who were supposed to have lost their original Aryan customs and to have become barbarous.¹ In the *Bhuridatta Jātaka* we find that many Kāmbojas who were not Ariyas falsely held that peoples were purified by killing insects, snakes, frogs, etc.² It is stated in the *Sāsanavamsa*³ that in the 235th year of the Buddha’s Parinibbāna, the Thera Mahārakkhita went to the Yonaka province and established the Buddha’s doctrine in Kāmboja and other places. In other passage of the *Sāsanavamsa*, we find the son of the king of Kāmboja referred to as a Buddhist monk, Tāmalinda, who sailed from Ceylon to India with the Thera Uttarājīva.⁴ Also in the *Sāsanavamsa*, we read of Sirīhamsya, who came from Kāmboja and conquered the city of Ratanapura. Fearing the increasing power and influence of the Buddhist monks, which might become a danger if they turned their minds to secular objects, he determined on a wholesale slaughter. He invited all the great theras of Jeyyapura, Vijayapura and Ratanapura together with their disciples, to meet him in the forest Toṅ-bhī-luṅ; and there he caused them, to the number of 3,000, to be surrounded and slain by his army. Many shrines were demolished and books burnt at the same time.⁵

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¹ *Jātaka* (Fausböll), VI, p. 208; *Ibid.* (Cowell), VI, p. 110, f.n. 2.

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² *Ibid.* (Fausböll), Vol. VI, pp. 208, 210.

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³ *Sāsanavamsa*, P.T.S. Ed., 49.

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⁴ p. 40, P.T.S. edition.

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⁵ *Ibid.* (P.T.S.), p. 100.

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The Emperor Aśoka sent missionaries to the nations on the borders of his empire, viz. the Kāmbojas, Yavanas, etc., with the object of converting them to Buddhism. He celebrates their conversion to the true Dhamma in Rock Edict XIII (see V. A. Smith, *Aśoka*, p. 168); while Rock Edict V tells us that Censors were created by Aśoka for the establishment of the law of piety, for the increase of the law, and for the welfare and happiness of the Kāmbojas, Gāndhāras and others living on the W. frontier of his dominions.

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In the ninth century A.D. the Kāmbojas are said to have been defeated by Devapāla, the great king of the Pāla dynasty of Bengal.⁶ But during the latter part of the 10th century the tables were turned, and the rule of the Pāla kings of Bengal was interrupted by the Kāmbojas, who set up one of their chiefs as king.⁷ In a place called Vānagarh in Dinājpur, Bengal, mention is made of a certain king of Gauḍa, born in the Kāmboja family. It is probable that the Kāmbojas first attempted to conquer Gauḍa during the reign of Devapāla, but were defeated at that time.⁸ R. P. Chanda surmises that in the middle of the tenth century A.D., the Kāmbojas again attacked North Bengal, and that its present inhabitants (of Koch, Mech, and Paliā) are descended from them.¹ The Kāmboja rulers were expelled by Mahīpāla I, the ninth king of the Pāla line, who is known to have been reigning in A.D. 1026, and may be assumed to have regained his ancestral throne about A.D. 978 or 980.²