Historical Geography of Ancient India c3: Author's Note
Historical Geography of Ancient India c3
- Language
- English
Author's Note
c3.1
A systematic and comprehensive historical geography of ancient India is undoubtedly a great necessity. It is indeed a long-felt want to have such a geography especially based on epigraphic data. With this object in view I have attempted to prepare the present book which is the outcome of my continued study of ancient Indian geography. I have arranged the geographical names in an alphabetical order and fully dealt with them under proper divisions to which they belong. I have utilized original works in Sanskrit (Vedic and Classical), Pali, Prakrit, Sinhalese, Burmese, Tibetan, and Chinese and I have received an invaluable help from other sources such as epigraphy, archaeology, numismatics, accounts of Greek travellers and Chinese pilgrims. Due attention has been paid to modern literature and modern researches on the subject. The investigations made in the line by Sir Alexander Cunningham, Sir William Jones, Lassen, Vivien-de St. Martin, Stanislas Julien, Buchanan Hamilton, Mackenzie, Sir Aurel Stein, Kirfel, Dey, S. N. Majumdar, Raychaudhuri and others are noteworthy, but they now require careful revision in order to make them thorough and up-to-date. My previous publications have given me an immense help to prepare this detailed treatise. The task is no doubt, fraught with difficulties, but I have tried my utmost to avert them as far as possible. I have spared no pains to make my treatment systematic, exhaustive, lucid, and useful. Three sketch-maps are given in this book for the guidance of the readers. I shall consider my labour amply rewarded, if this book greatly helps the geographers engaged in researches on ancient Indian geography.
c3.2
I am highly grateful to Prof. Dr. Louis Renou for his *Avant-propos*. The Société Asiatique of Paris has laid me under a deep debt of obligation by accepting this book as their publication.
c3.3
43 Kailas Bose Street, Calcutta 6, India. 1st August, 1954. } B. C. LAW.
c3.4
The *fraternities* of the Middle Ages, which were so numerous and so varied in their objects, were not all of the same origin. Some were religious, some social, some charitable, and some industrial. The religious guilds, or *gilds*, as they were often called, were associations of laymen for the purpose of performing religious duties, such as the maintenance of a chaplain, the celebration of masses, or the support of a hospital. The social guilds were formed for the purpose of mutual aid and good fellowship, and often included in their objects the relief of the poor, the sick, and the aged. The charitable guilds were established for the purpose of supporting hospitals, almshouses, and other institutions of mercy. The industrial guilds, or *craft guilds*, were associations of men engaged in the same trade or industry, and were formed for the purpose of regulating the trade, protecting the interests of the members, and maintaining the quality of their work.
c3.5
The craft guilds, which became so powerful in the later Middle Ages, were the successors of the earlier *collegia* of the Roman Empire. The *collegia* were associations of artisans and tradesmen, which were recognized by the state and had a legal existence. When the Roman Empire fell, these associations were largely destroyed, but the idea of association for mutual protection and the regulation of trade survived. In the early Middle Ages, the *gilds* began to reappear, and by the twelfth century they were firmly established in many of the cities of Europe.
c3.6
The craft guilds were organized on a democratic basis, and every member had a voice in the management of the guild's affairs. The officers were elected by the members, and the rules and regulations were made by the guild as a whole. The guilds had the power to fix prices, to regulate the hours of labor, and to determine the conditions of apprenticeship. They also had the power to punish members who violated the rules, and to expel those who were guilty of serious offenses. The guilds were thus a powerful force in the economic life of the Middle Ages, and they played an important part in the development of the modern industrial system.
c3.7
The decline of the craft guilds began in the sixteenth century, when the rise of the factory system and the growth of international trade made it difficult for the small, local guilds to compete with the larger and more efficient industrial organizations. The guilds were also weakened by the growth of the power of the state, which began to regulate trade and industry directly, and by the rise of the capitalist class, which sought to break the power of the guilds and to establish a system of free competition. By the end of the eighteenth century, the craft guilds had largely disappeared, but their influence lived on in the trade unions and other labor organizations of the modern world.