Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s1.t1: Chinese Buddhism
Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s1.t1
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Chinese Buddhism
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After long-term interpretation, translations, lectures and research on Buddhist scriptures, Buddhism got introduced to China thus forming various academic and religious sects with national characteristics meanwhile externally spreading to Korea, Japan and Vietnam.
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Early introduction
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In recent archaeological discovery, statues of Buddha has been found in tombs of the Eastern Han Dynasty at Pengshan, Sichuan and the cliff inscriptions of Buddha has got discovered in Kongwang Mountain at Lianyungang. It is said that the introduction of Buddhist scriptures is started at the oral introduction of Borobudur scriptures (Buddhist scriptures) from Yi Cun who was the envoy of Da Yue Shi Tribe to Jing Lu in the first year of Yuan Shou in Han Dynasty (2 BCE). But it is difficult to ascertain the scripture to which it belonged to since it has been lost for a long time. The *Sutra of 42 sections*, which was taken from the Western Regions by the envoy of Emperor Ming in Yongping years (58～75), is conventionally taken as the evidence of the original introduction of Buddha Dharma into China but in recent years its historical veracity has been doubted making it a controversial evidence. While an exact date for the entry of Buddhism in China is still doubtful, it is, however, certain that by the Common Era Buddhism had to spread to Chinese Han regions, especially intensively in areas like Chang’an and Luoyang as well as Pengcheng (Xuzhou) etc. Buddha was then initially considered as a kind of supernatural being so much so that Emperor Huan of Han sacrificed for the Buddha along with the Yellow Emperor [Huangdi] and the founder of Taoism, Lao Zi and recognised Buddhist monks as necromancer.
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3ʳᵈ and 4ᵗʰ centuries CE
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After the Han Dynasty, Buddhist monks of India, Parthia and Kang Ju, such as Dharmakala, Dharmasatya, Samgha-varman etc successively came to Luoyang, the capital of Wei State to engage in translating the Buddhist scriptures. Then, Zhi Qian, Kang Senghui etc came to Jian Ye, the capital of Wu State (present Nanjing, Jiangsu) for promoting Buddhism. Zhi Qian won the courteous reception of Sun Quan and was knighted as a learned scholar and a temple was established for Kang Senghui. Dharmakala and Dharmasatya were skilled at the study of temperament, thus translating one volume of *Mahasanghikavinaya* namely Seng Qi Jie Xin which advocated the monks to abide by the Buddhist system and the commandment. This was the first original material for the foundation of Buddhism in China. Dharmasatya also translated one volume of *Dharmagupta-vinaya* in Baima Temple. Additionally, Kang Senghui is credited with the translation of four works such as *Uqradatta* and *The Sutra Of Eternal Life*. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in Wu State was started in Wuchang and was popular in Jianye. Zhi Qian devoted himself to the translation of Buddhist ancient books and records related to Hinayana and Mahayana Vinaya-sutra totally to 88 books and 118 volumes of which 51 books and 69 volumes still exist. Kang Senghui also translated nine
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*Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang, China*
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volumes of *A Collection of the Six Perfection*, namely *Sat-Paramita – Samgiti*. At that time, popular texts of both Hinayana and Mahayana were part of the translation activities wherein Hinayana focussed on Buddhism and laid emphasis on mental cultivation (“follow your mind”), Mahayana laid particular emphasis on Hannya. In a word, the translations of Buddhist scriptures and the promotion and the research on Buddhism belief had laid the preliminary foundation for the development of Buddhism during the period of Wei-Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties. Additionally, numerous temples and Buddha figures were constructed in that period but only a few has remained preserved till now.
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5ᵗʰ and 6ᵗʰ centuries CE
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Most of the emperors of the Southern Dynasties of Song, Qi, Liang and Chen believed in Buddhism. Emperor Liangwu sincerely believed in Buddhism and called himself “san bao nu” [three precious slave] and wanted to be a Monk for four times and was finally redeemed by the money provided by the state. He established a large number of temples and expounded the texts of Buddhism by himself and held large-scale fast ceremonies. There were 2,846 temples in Liang Dynasty including 82,700 monks and nuns. In Jiankang (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu) alone, there were more than 700 temples, including 10,000 monks and nuns. Though Buddhism was officially prohibited during the period of Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei and Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou but in general practice even the emperors of these dynasties supported Buddhism. Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei ordered to excavate Yungang Grottoes at Datong and Emperor Xiaowen ordered to build Longmen Grottoes in honour of his queen mother after moving the capital to Luoyang. At the end of the Northern Wei Dynasty, there were totally 415 books and 1,919 volumes of Buddhist scriptures, about 30,000 temples and two million monks and nuns. In the Northern Qi Dynasty, the monk administrators took charge of about 4 million monks and nuns and 40,000 temples. In the Northern and Southern Dynasties, a large number of foreign monks came to China to promote Buddhism, which included such famous monks like Gunavarman, Gunabhadra, Paramartha, Bodhiruci, Ratnamati etc. Additionally, a number of Chinese believers also came to India for the study tour, for example, famous Fa Xian, Zhi Meng, Song Yun, Hui Seng etc came to India for pilgrimage and carried back numerous Buddhist scriptures.
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*Grotto 20, Yungang Grottoes, Datong, Shanxi, China*
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7^th ~ middle 10^th centuries CE
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The development of Buddhism in Wei-Jin Northern and Southern Dynasties created the ideological and economic conditions for establishing the Buddhist sects with Chinese characteristics in Sui and Tang Dynasties. After unifying the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Emperor Wen of Sui sent out an imperial decree to construct one temple for each of the Five Mountains and recover the temples and Buddha figures which were prohibited in the Northern Zhou Dynasty. Additionally, the state temple – Da Xing Shan Temple which was used to execute Buddhism policies was established in the capital, namely Da Xing City (Southeast Chang’an city of Han Dynasty). During Ren Shou years (601~604), 111 dagobas were established in the country and the places for translation were also widely arranged for collecting Chinese and foreign translators to translate and expound Buddhist scriptures. Inheriting the Buddhism protection policy of Emperor Wen of Sui, Emperor Yang of Sui established the famous Huiri (Jñānādivākara) Bodhimanda in Yangzhou as the centre for spreading Buddhism and continued to develop the previous translation activities. Buddhism thus became very popular in that period. During Ren Shou years, there were 3,792 important temples and 2,30,000 monks in the country who wrote 46 books and 3,28,616 volumes, reviewed and corrected 3,853 old scriptures, built and repaired 15,08,940 stone Buddha figures.
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Tang Dynasty is the greatest and most prosperous age of Chinese Buddhism. Although the emperors of Tang Dynasty called themselves the descendants of the ancestor of Laozi and respected Taoism, they actually also concurrently adopted Buddhism. Emperor Taizong of Tang received assistance from monks in his efforts to unify the state and bring peace to disturbed areas. So instantly after inheriting the throne, he sent out an imperial decree to establish temples at the “war-disturbed places” in the country and founded the scripture translation school at Da Ci’en Temple so as to invite the wellknown monks at home and aboard to translate and promote scriptures and cultivate a large number of eminent monks and scholars. After Emperor Gaozong inherited the throne, official temples were established in the capital and various cities in order to pray for peace and prosperity. Moreover, Empress Wu Zetian ordered to establish Da Yun Temple at various cities. During the whole Tang Dynasty, the Buddhist monks were highly respected and received many honours and rewards. Monk Amoghavajra once served for Emperors Xuanzong, Suzong and Daizong of Tang and was promoted as Su Guo Gong (a Chinese nobility title) and after his death, Emperor Daizong of Tang cancelled the morning court meetings for three days so as to grieve over his death. There were many famous Chinese monks in Tang Dynasty whose a deep and wide comprehension of Buddhist philosophy far exceeded those of the previous generations. These monks laid the theoretical foundation for establishing various religious sects with national characteristics. Meanwhile, Buddhist beliefs were also widely accepted by the masses thus leading to the growth of folk tales, narrative literature etc which greatly contributed to the development of architecture, sculpture, painting, music etc and enriched the Chinese culture and art. In Tang Dynasty, a large number of foreign monks and scholars came to China to engage in missionary work and Buddhist scriptures translation. Meanwhile many Chinese monks (such as Xuan Zang, Yi Jing etc) travelled to India for pilgrimage and studies. Their works spread Chinese Buddhism to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and Java (present-day Indonesia) and strengthened the relationship between China and other Asian countries on religion, culture and commerce. However, during the 5th Huichang Year (845 CE), there was large-scale persecution of Buddhists due to social and economic reasons etc Emperor Wuzong ordered to expropriate the landed property of the temples, destroy Buddhist temples, derobe Sramana and force the monks to resume secular life. According to the records of Tang Hui Yao, about 4,600 temples and 40,000 Buddhist buildings such as monasteries, Caturdesa etc were destroyed at that time. Properties of temples were also expropriated and 2,60,500 monks and nuns were forced to resume secular life. Obviously, Buddhism suffered from a great persecution..
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The imperial palace hall of the Daxingshan Temple, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
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The horizontal inscribed board at the Xiangji Temple of the Buddhist Sect of Pure Land Buddhism, Shenheyuan, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China
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The flourishing development of Buddhism promoted emergence of independent sects and schools of Mahayana during the Song and Tang dynasties. For example, the Tiantai Sect was founded Zhi Yi; the Three Treatise School by Ji Zang; the Dharma Character School by Xuan Zang and Kui Ji; Vinaya Schools by Dao Xuan, Fa Li and Huai Su respectively at the South Mountain, Xiang Bu and East Tower; the Pure Land Sect which was initiated by Tan Luan of the Northern Wei Dynasty, continued by Dao Chao of Sui Dynasty and integrated by Shan Dao of Tang Dynasty; the North and South Schools of Chan Buddhism respectively established by Daman Hongren’s follower Shen Xiu and Hui Neng; “the Five Schools of Chan Buddhism (namely Weiyang, Linji, Caodong, Yunmen and Fayan)” successively appearing at middle Tang Dynasty; the Hua-yen school established by Fa Zang; and the Esoteric Buddhist Sects founded by Indian monks Subhakarasimha, Vajrabodhi, Amoghavajra and Hui Guo. Many of these Mahayana sects were introduced overseas instantly after their establishment thereof along with the development of external communication in China in Sui and Tang Dynasties.
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Middle 10th ~ middle 13th centuries CE
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At early Northern Song Dynasty, the imperial court adopted the protection policy for Buddhism. In the first Jianlong year (960 CE), 8,000 monks were taken across and successively 157 monks such as Xing Qin were assigned to India for seeking Buddha Dharma, and meanwhile Zhang Congxin was order to engrave Tripitaka at Yizhou (present Chengdu, Sichuan). In the first Tai Ping Xing Guo year (976 CE), 1,70,000 monks were taken across, and the scripture translation school was established within five years to recover the scripture translation which was interrupted for up to 170 years since the sixth Yuan He Year of Tang Dynasty (811 CE). Although the scale of scripture translation was greater than that of the Tang Dynasty, the achievement thereof was poorer. The Chan Buddhism, especially Lin Ji and Yunmen, was most prosperous among the religious sects followed by the Tian Tai, Hua Yan, Vinaya Schools and the Pure Land Sect. Since sects like Hua Yan Chan and Nian Fo Chan etc were combined with each other and advocated “consistency of Buddhism (Tian Tai Hua Yan) and Chan” and “consistency of contemplation and Chan”, they were widely popular. Additionally, the Tiantai sect which was divided into Shanjia and Shanwai sects as well as the Nianfo Chan association was greatly prosperous and had a great influence over the masses. In the fifth Tianxi year (1021 CE), there were 4,60,000 monks and nuns and 40,000 temples. The year 1021 was, therefore, regarded as the peak period of development of Buddhism in the Northern Song Dynasty. During the period of Emperor Huizong (1101~1125) since the imperial court sincerely believed in Taoism, an order was issued to integrate Buddhism with Taoism and change the Buddhist temple into Taoist temple. Buddhism thus once again suffered from persecution.
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In the Southern Song Dynasty, Jiangnan Buddhism was still prosperous. Sects other than Pure Land and Chan, however, gradually fading due to the official restrictions on the development of Buddhism. Because Chan sect did not reserve any word records and not focus on scriptures, it had a small impact during Huichang Buddhist persecution and wars of the Five Dynasties. The Pure Land Sect focussed on whole heartedly chanting the name of Amitabh Buddha so it was simple and easy. Meanwhile, the Chan monks after the Northern Song mostly belonged to Pure Land Sect so Pure Land Sect could continue to be prosperous till modern times.
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Confucianism and neo-Confucianism of Song Dynasty not only absorbed the thought of Hua Yan and Chan sect to enrich the contents thereof but also criticised and rejected Buddhism. Ouyang Xiu was the most well-known Buddhism excluders but the rejection was once opposed by Qi Song monk, the prime minister of Song Dynasty namely Zhang Shangying, Li Gang, Liu Mi etc. *Zhang Shangying* wrote *The Sastra on Protecting the Dharma* and created Three Religions Compromise Theory. The thought of Kong Zi was the same as those advocated by Buddhism. Confucianism could be used to cure skin disease, Taoist could cure blood vessel disease and Buddhist were to cure bone marrow disease so the real intention of the three sects were consistent with each other. Moreover, San Jiao Ping Xin Lun created by Liu Mi also had the same purport.
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Painting depicting unity between the three religious doctrines of Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism, Qing Period
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Middle of 13ᵗʰ ~ 19ᵗʰ centuries CE
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The governor of Yuan dynasty advocated Tibetan Buddhism but also adopted the protection policy for Chinese Han Buddhism. Chan Sect and Rissh Sech etc in Buddhism continued to spread and develop with increased temples and monks and nuns. From Shi Zu to the 28th year of Yuan (1291 CE), there were 42,318 temples, 2,13,000 monks and nuns in the country and meanwhile, strict monk administrators were set in centre and local governments so as to supervise the monks. Moreover, Rectified Baizhang's Commandments by Imperial Order was issued and enforced and the famous Tripitaka of Puning Temple was also engraved in that period.
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After the period of Emperor Wanli of Ming Dynasty, Zhu Hong, Zhen Ke, De Qing and Zhi Xu emerged and further internally developed the theories of Chan sect, Buddhism, Rissh sect etc. They externally combined with Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. Such an integration was greatly welcomed by literatti and officialdom and believed by the common people. This also promoted development of Buddhism with more Chinese characteristics.
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During the early Qing Dynasty, the imperial family believed in Tibetan Buddhism and adopted the policy of restricting Chinese Han Buddhism. The restriction was slightly relaxed during the period of Emperor Kangxi and Emperor Kangxi. They invited eminent monks who had gone into seclusion at the late Ming Dynasty to return back and make decadent Buddhism active again. Emperor Yongzheng paid attention to Tibetan Buddhism but he advocated that Confucianism and Buddhism shall run parallel in the same system and various sects of Buddhism shall be fused with each other. He also prepared The Magic Book pick differentiation and Yu Xuan Yu Lu by himself and advocated that all sects shall chant the name of Buddha thus imposing an important impact on Buddhism of modern times. Emperor Qianlong issued Qianlong Version Tripitaka and edited Combined Tripitaka of Man, Han, Meng and Zang which certainly drove the development of Buddhism. Since the late Qing Dynasty, Yang Wenhui, Ouyang Jingwu and others established scriptures inscription office, Buddhist college, Buddhist association etc under the promotion of Japanese and Western Europe Buddhist research and thus opened a new era for researching the philosophical connotations of Buddhism. Modern Chinese intellectuals, such as Kang Youwei, Tan Citong, Zhang Taiyan, Liang Qichao, and others were all influenced by Buddhism. Liang Qichao's famous work Belief of Kindness was inspired by the Buddhist philosophy. Additionally, a large number of famous monks, such as Yue Xia, Di Xian, Yuang Ying, Tai Xu, Hong Yi and others contributed to the promotion and development of modern Buddhism in China to a prosperous and flourishing belief.
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(*Huang Xinchuan*)
Cites (2)
- Dharmaguptaka-vinaya — Classical Chinese
- Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya — Classical Chinese