Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s10.t3: Vedas
Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s10.t3
- Language
- English
Vedas
v1.c7.s10.t3.1
Veda is a large body of the oldest extant religious and historical texts in ancient India produced orally by primitive Indians and collected together by later generations to form present written texts. It is a great number of texts that had been produced within a lengthy span of time, and most texts originated in about the 16ᵗʰ-9ᵗʰ century BCE. It mainly consists of hymns on people’s lives and contains many religious thoughts as well as philosophical ideas in primitive India. Such thoughts not only have important impacts on ancient Indian civilisation, but also are a main source of thinking for modern Indian civilisation. Its ideas were brought into China along with Buddhism, and had been attached great importance by Chinese thinkers.
v1.c7.s10.t3.2
**Literature Components and Main Categories** Sanskrit “Veda” originally means “knowledge”, especially about religion. It can be divided into two categories. In a broad sense, it is a collection of some texts in northwest India, including the *Samhitas*, the *Brahmanas*, the *Aranyakas*, the *Upanishads* and the like, while in a narrow sense, it only refers to “Four Vedas”, ie *Rigveda*, *Samaveda*, *Yajurveda* and *Atharvaveda*.
v1.c7.s10.t3.3
The *Samhitas* are collections of hymns, mantras, songs of praise, spells and incantations about the Deities.
v1.c7.s10.t3.4
The Brahmaza are also known as Brahman or *Brahmanas*, consisting of texts for sacrificial rituals mentioned in the *Samhitas* as well as comment on their origins, methods and associated legends.
v1.c7.s10.t3.5
The *Aranyakas*, as an additional part of the *Brahmanas*, discuss some philosophical or meditative issues as well as sacrificial purposes and methods.
v1.c7.s10.t3.6
The *Upanishads*, as an additional part of the *Aranyakas*, are quite different from other Vedas. Besides religious and sacrificial content, they also contain a lot of discussions on philosophical or speculative issues, and are the earliest Indian texts offering relatively systematic philosophical thoughts.
v1.c7.s10.t3.7
Moreover, some people also include the *Srauta-sutra*, *Grhya-sutra* and *Dharma-sutra* into the Vedas.
v1.c7.s10.t3.8
In the Vedic period, India already had philosophical thoughts, which, strictly speaking, were embryonic, less abstract and hard to be classified as genuine and systematic philosophical thinking. The Vedas are more religious than philosophical, and the *Samhitas*, i,e., “Four Vedas”, are a typical representation of Indian ideas in the Vedic period.
v1.c7.s10.t3.9
The Rigveda is the oldest Vedic text, and some of the oldest hymns can be dated back to about 1500 BCE. It mainly contains hymns used by primitive Indians (supposed by many scholars to be the Aryans) to praise the gods, and these hymns are verses loudly chanted at sacrificial rituals to call the deities. The Rigveda originally was produced and preserved by oral tradition alone, and was not written down until much later. The existing Rigveda includes 10 volumes and a total of 1,017 hymns (if 11 hymns inserted into the volume 8 are included, it will total 1,028). Given their inconsistency and lack of coordination, obviously, these 10 volumes are impossible to have been written by a single person or co-authored by several persons.
v1.c7.s10.t3.10
The Samaveda, basically, is a collection of hymns taken from the Rigveda, with melodies provided. Of these hymns, all but 75 are taken from volume 8 and volume 9 of the Rigveda. Therefore, of the four Vedas, the Samaveda has the poorest independence, but it has an important value for the study of the development of ancient Indian music. The extant Samaveda contains two volumes and a total of 1,549 hymns. Volume 1 includes six chapters, and Volume 2 has nine chapters, with some overlapping with Volume 1 and the most contents being taken from the Rigveda. Volume 2 was formed later than Volume 1.
v1.c7.s10.t3.11
*Veda, Sanskrit manuscript, 15ᵗʰ century CE*
v1.c7.s10.t3.12
Yajurveda
v1.c7.s10.t3.13
The Yajurveda, with contents much different from the Rigveda, narrates events in the central part of north India. It mainly contains mantras needed to perform sacrifices, and most of these mantras are in prose, while some are in verse, and they are to be lowly chanted at the sacrifices. Generally, the Yajurveda is supposed to have close connection with the *Brahmanas*, and might have been composed between 1000- 800 BCE. Now, it has two versions, one is called “Black Yajurveda” and the other is “White Yajurveda”. The Black Yajurveda consists of the texts of the *Samhita* and that of the Brahmana, which is difficult to be distinguished, that's why it's called “black”. It also contains some commentaries. While the White Yajurveda separates the *Samhita* from its *Brahmanas* clearly. The Yajurveda has 40 chapters, and 18 of them have an earlier origin, and the rest might have been added into it later on.
v1.c7.s10.t3.14
The Atharvaveda tells very different things from the above three. In ancient India, some schools of religion or philosophy often called the first three as “Three Vedas”, or when mentioning the Vedas, considered that it had three components, and did not consider the Atharvaveda as a part of the *Samhitas*. Its contents are different indeed. The first three Vedas chiefly include hymns, charms and mantras, while the Atharvaveda, in the main, is a collection of spells and incantations used to avoid disaster and to summon good luck. For example, spells against enemy, disease, disaster, wild animal and alleged demons, and summon or pray for health, long life, wealth, safe journey and domestic peace. The Atharvaveda also contains some embryonic philosophical discussion. In the Atharvaveda, most verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose. The Atharvaveda was composed about 1000 BCE, very close to the date of the Yajurveda. Extant Atharvaveda contains 20 volumes and a total of 730 verses, and a lot of them are taken from the Rigveda, and generally, the last two volumes were added in a later period.
v1.c7.s10.t3.15
In addition to religious topics, there are also signs of philosophical thinking. These two aspects closely relate to and yet differ from each other, and it is the *Upanishads* that contains many philosophical ideas.
v1.c7.s10.t3.16
**Main Religious Forms** The *Vedas*, in the main, is a mirror of the social life shortly after the disintegration of primitive Indian society. Then, given the poor state of social productivity and thinking, people generally could not arrive at a right understanding of various natural phenomena, and they were curious about and even fearful of natural phenomena that had a direct and considerable impact on their life, but had to explain such things to themselves or their fellowmen. From such a need, the oldest religious ideas arose in ancient India
v1.c7.s10.t3.17
In the *Vedas*, polytheistic worship is the earliest form of religion. For instance, hill, river, grass and tree on the earth, wind, rain, thunder and lightning in the air, the moon, the sun and stars in the sky, and the like, all were treated as deities. The following are some deities of Nature mentioned in the *Vedas*.
v1.c7.s10.t3.18
The Sun is deified by Vedic poets and became Surya, the Sun God. Surya is supposed to be a deity to observe all persons and creatures and to expel darkness and to bring the light. He is praised in many Vedic hymns. For instance, a hymn in the Rigveda (7.63.4) says: “Golden, far-seeing, from the heaven he rises, far is his goal, he has on resplendent. Men, verily, inspirited by Surya speed to their aims and do their work.”
v1.c7.s10.t3.19
Ushas as the Goddess of the Dawn originates from Vedic poets' marvel at the beautiful scene of the dawn. In the Vedic hymns, she is said to be the mother or wife of Surya and to work to expel the night and to awake persons and all kinds of creatures. In the Rigveda (4.51.1), she is portrayed as follows: “FORTH from the darkness in the region eastward, this most abundant splendid light hath mounted. Now verily the far-refulgent Mornings, Daughters of Heaven, bring welfare to the people.”
v1.c7.s10.t3.20
Indra, the God of the Thunder, is also a product of Vedic poets. The Rigveda (2.12.2) states, “He fixes fast and firms the earth that staggered, and sets at rest the agitated mountains, Who measured out the air's wide middle region and gave the heaven support, He, men, is Indra.” A lot of hymns in the Vedas are about Indra, who seems to have been attached great importance then. This has something to do with climate. India often suffers from high temperature and little rain, while thunder may bring rain and have an important effect on people’s lives. Besides thunder, whenever it appears, is powerful and impressive. For this, Indra becomes an important deity in the Vedas.
v1.c7.s10.t3.21
Agni, the God of Fire, is a frequent topic in the Vedas as well, since fire is closely associated with everyday life and is something that often can be seen. A hymn in the *Rigveda* (1.1.3) represents him as, “Through Agni man obtains wealth, yea, plenty waxing day by day, Most rich in heroes, glorious.” Fire is necessary for heating and cooking, and thunder and friction all could give rise to fire, and so, Agni becomes one of the most important Vedic gods.
v1.c7.s10.t3.22
Some other phenomena of nature are also deified, for example, wind, rain and river. Vayu, the deified wind, works to facilitate growth and to bring luck and merit to posterity. Parjanya, the God of Rain, is to irrigate plants and to promote their growth.
v1.c7.s10.t3.23
A painting of ‘*Primeval Purusha*’
v1.c7.s10.t3.24
Sarasvati, representing rivers, can irrigate the land, bring harvest and help clean and wash dirt.
v1.c7.s10.t3.25
The Vedas also mentions other gods, such as Dyaus, Varuna, Mitra and Marut, each representing a natural phenomenon that is deified.
v1.c7.s10.t3.26
Besides, some animals and plants are deified as well, for example, horse, cow, sheep, snake, soma grass, herb and tree. There are a great number of such deities.
v1.c7.s10.t3.27
These descriptions indicate, in the early Vedic period, objects or phenomena of Nature, being powerful or impressive, are primary worship for Indians. It is not complex to deify the Nature, animals or plants, and people just need to recognise their marvelous superpower and to worship them accordingly. But, with the time going, people have become more capable and begin to know more about Nature, and the form of their worship also changes in the following two aspects:
v1.c7.s10.t3.28
Firstly, deities are no longer confined to directly visible natural phenomena or objects, and instead, there appear some gods that are created by human imagination (reforming a natural object in one’s mind) or abstraction. These gods do not have any direct equivalent in Nature, and include among others Asura (God of demons or spirits), Raksa (God of the un-righteous) and Yama (God of death). There are also deities of confidence, love, language and the like.
v1.c7.s10.t3.29
Secondly, people move from polytheism to major gods. In the early Vedic period, people gradually narrow the scope of their worship, and begin to choose one or several dominating gods from numerous deities; for example, Indra (the God of the Thunder, later often seen as a protector or a god of war for brave tribes). People gradually become aware of so many gods, there is one that has a more powerful and fundamental role, not only affecting everyday life but also mastering or ruling other deities. The Vedic shift from polytheism has something to do with the then prevailing social and historical development, and at that time, in the South Asian Subcontinent, there occurred the combination of tribes or nations and the formation of many small kingdoms. This is more or less reflected in the development of religious worship.
v1.c7.s10.t3.30
People in the Vedic period had a variety of ways to worship deities, and sacrifice is an important option. For Indians, sacrificial rituals are to win the favour and obtain the blessing from the gods and to realise benefits. Nevertheless, some tend to think a sacrificial ritual has nothing to do with the gods and can bring good by itself. The Vedas mentions a great variety of sacrifices, for example, new moon or full moon sacrifice (on the first and 15th day every month), fire sacrifice, horse sacrifice, human sacrifice (with human beings or any alternative as an offering), etc.
v1.c7.s10.t3.31
In the Vedic period, sacrifices are deemed to be able to please the gods and bring good, and spells to work on the gods and to help people achieve their purpose. The Atharvaveda contains many relevant contents, and the Yajurveda also have relevant discussions. There are a variety of spells, such as the spell to remove disaster, to deal with and incapacitate the devils, and there are also curses to invoke demons to do harm to those being hated. There are also mantras for long life and peace. Then, people attach importance to such spells and charms and use them to avoid disaster and to summon good luck.
v1.c7.s10.t3.32
Early Philosophical Thought
v1.c7.s10.t3.33
The Vedas also contain the oldest philosophical thought in India. These thoughts originate from some Vedic poets’ skepticism of the gods, and doubtful, people turn to explain various things outside the sphere of deities. The Vedas has a number of “philosophical hymns”, with the most famous including the Ka (Rigveda, 10.121), the Purusha (Rigveda, 10.90) and the Creation (Rigveda, 10.82)
v1.c7.s10.t3.34
The *Creation* states, “Then was not non-existent or existent”. Deities arose after the creation of the world. The concept of “tadekam” (that is, One Thing) is proposed, and there is nothing else other than tadekam. Actually, “tadekam” is thought to be the origin of the universe. This hymn shows, some Vedic poets tend to take the origin of the universe as something beyond secular existence or nonexistence, and such cause is something abstract and primary rather than the then popular deities. However, it is not ambiguous what “tadekam” is, and roughly speaking, it is something of fundamental cause or an origin prior to the unfolding of all things.
v1.c7.s10.t3.35
The Ka states, “In the beginning rose Hiranya garbha, Giver of vital breath, of power and vigor, he whose commandments all the Gods acknowledge, Lord of men and Lord of cattle, earth’s Begetter ,the heavens’ Creator. He is the God of gods, and none
v1.c7.s10.t3.36
*Rigveda*
v1.c7.s10.t3.37
beside him”. From “garbha” the concept of “anda” evolves, suggesting that everything evolves from this “anda”. Later on, “Garbha” or “anda” turns into a popular world or universe outlook in ancient India.
v1.c7.s10.t3.38
The Purusha takes “Purusha” as the universal basis, and says, “This Puruṣa is all that yet hath been and all that is to be. The Brahman was his mouth, of both his arms was the Rājanya made. His thighs became the Vaiśya, from his feet the Śūdra was produced. The Moon was gendered from his mind, and from his eye the Sun had birth; Indra and Agni from his mouth were born, and Vāyu from his breath. Forth from his navel came mid-air the sky was fashioned from his head. Earth from his feet and from his ear the regions.” This hymn considers and combines humans and creatures and is the earliest to advocate the homogeneity of human nature and the nature of the world. In the *Upanishads*, this idea is further extended to dominate in Indian philosophy and to form the core of Indian Brahmanism or Hinduism.
v1.c7.s10.t3.39
The Visvakarman also put forth the concept of “takedam”, which is thought to be the basis of and depended by all things, and have a special power and is the name giver for all deities.
v1.c7.s10.t3.40
In addition to the above concepts, the Vedas also contains some quite philosophical terms, such as Rta, Sat and Brahman. Though not appeared in the *Vedas* for many times or frequently, these ideas have an important meaning for the later formation of systematic Indian philosophy, and represent Indians’ earliest attempts to think philosophically.
v1.c7.s10.t3.41
In the Vedas, philosophical and religious contents are mixed, and this gradually becomes an important characteristic for the development of Indian philosophy and religion, and in later generations, Indian philosophy is also closely associated with the development of Indian religion.
v1.c7.s10.t3.42
The Vedas has a special position in the development of ancient Indian civilisation. Brahmanism or Hinduism, as the mainstream in the history of Indian thoughts, all take the Vedas as a fundamental canon. It is on the basis of the attitude toward the Vedas that the orthodox and the heterodox are divided. Those recognising the authoritativeness of the *Vedas* are orthodox, while the deniers are non-orthodox. Moreover, the Vedas has an impact on the orthodox Brahmanism as well as on non-orthodox schools. Some non-orthodox schools in India, in fact, more or less have absorbed some Vedic thoughts, though such absorption is either adapted or not evident.
v1.c7.s10.t3.43
In modern India, the Vedas still has a significant influence, and many religious ideas, rituals or customs, and many well-known thinkers are worshippers of the *Vedas*, and some even call for the return to Vedic assertion, and consider the *Vedas* as a treasure of wisdom and religious truth.
v1.c7.s10.t3.44
**Dissemination and Influence to China** Vedic ideas, along with Buddhism, have been brought into China for long, and ancient Chinese knew them through Buddhist texts.
v1.c7.s10.t3.45
In Chinese sutras, Veda is transliterated as “Weituo” or “Weituo” (different characters in Chinese) paraphrased as “Zhilun” or “Minglun”, and has been mentioned in a considerable Chinese texts.
v1.c7.s10.t3.46
In the *Matanga Sutra*, translated in the Three Kingdoms by Zhi Qian and Zhu Lvyan, the Volume 1 states that, “There once lived Brahma, who practiced Zen, has great wisdom, and created a Veda to preach, and later on, there is a god, named Svetasvatara, who created four Vedas to praise, to sacrifice, to chant and to expel disaster”. This means that the basics of the four Vedas were already known in China in the Three Kingdoms period. It is also mentioned in Chinese sutras of Tang Dynasty. For instance, the Volume 1 of the *Vijāptimātratāsiddhi* translated by Xuanzang sates that, “Minglun can explain things and should be non-eternal, as a sound.” Here, “Minglun” means the *Vedas*.
v1.c7.s10.t3.47
*Matanga, painted by Zhang Daqian*
v1.c7.s10.t3.48
In modern China, the *Vedas* is also well-known, and those who are attentive to Indian scholars usually know about the position of the *Vedas* in Indian culture, and many Chinese scholars concentrate on Vedic study. Some Vedic texts are translated, and academic journals often publish articles on Vedic thoughts. Books on Indian philosophy or culture generally contain Vedic chapters, and university courses on Indian culture also provide the study or introduction of the *Vedas*.
v1.c7.s10.t3.49
(*Yao Weiqun*)
Linked texts (2)
- Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
- Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi — Ratnākaraśānti, Sanskrit