Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s7.t11: Yoga
Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s7.t11
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Yoga
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As one of the major philosophical schools of Brahmanism, Yoga has a long history in India, and can trace its roots back to the early civilisations in the Indian subcontinent. Some of the most ancient Indian literatures contain information on the practice of Yoga. It came into its own and became an independent school of philosophy around the mid-2nd century BCE. The theories and ways of practice of Yoga have long been a subject of wide interest among all Indian schools of thought. As a highly influential school of philosophy in India, it spread to China along with the Buddhism.
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**Historical Evolution and Foundational Text** - The word “Yoga” comes from Sanskrit and originally means “union” or “conjunction”, and by extension, “conformity with the mento-emotional energy”. As a religious practice, the Yoga school took its rudimentary form as early as the period of the Indus Valley civilisations. At two representative Indus ruins sites, Mohenjo-daro (Mound of the Dead) and Harappa, thousands of small seals have been unearthed, which were mainly used at the time as clan emblems, lucky charms, or identity indicators. A few of them even reflect the religious beliefs practiced then. Some show deities seated in a posture consistent with the popular Yoga posture we become familiar with today. Therefore, it can be established that the practice of Yoga originated from the period of the Indus Valley civilisations ie 2500 BCE.
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Such ancient Indian classics as the *Upanishads*, *Arthasastra* and Sanskrit epic *Mahabharata* all
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*Patanjali*
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contained references or information about the yoga school. Its ways of practice have long been adopted by many other Indian schools of philosophy. However, religious practices of yoga were concluded and summarised, then became an independent religious and philosophical school with systematic theories of its own at a much later date.
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It is generally acknowledged that Patanjali was the creator of Yoga and the school’s earliest foundation text is the *Yoga-sūtra* by Patanjali. Containing additional parts incorporated later, the extant version of the sutra was compiled between 300 CE and 500 CE. There was an Indian grammarian active around 150 BCE who was also named Patanjali. If this grammarian and the author of the *Yoga-sūtra* were the same person, then we can establish with certainty that the early version of the sutra first appeared around 2ⁿᵈ century BCE.
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After the *Yoga-sūtra*, classic texts of the yoga school were mainly comprised of commentaries on the sutra including the *Yoga-sūtra-bhasya* by Vyasa (around 6ᵗʰ century CE), the *Tattva-vaisarabi* (commentaries on “Yoga-sūtra-bhasya”) by Vacaspati misra (around 9ᵗʰ century CE), the *Rajamartanda* by Bhoja (11th century CE) and *Yoga-varttika* (commentaries on *Yoga-sūtra-bhasya*) and *Yoga-sara-samgraha* (direct exposition on the theory of this school) by Vijnanabhiksu (16th century CE).
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Following the appearance of *Yoga-sūtra* and commentaries thereon, the Yoga School saw its influence steadily growing. Some new Yoga classics such as the new upanishads also emerged, which mainly dwell upon the relationship between deity, soul and body. In addition, the theories and ways of practice of yoga were also assimilated and improved by many other Indian schools of thought. Except for the Lokayata School, all major schools of philosophy popular in ancient India have Yoga elements of their own.
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The Yoga elements inherent in the various Indian schools of thought partly derive from the ancient Indian Yoga traditions, and partly from the Yoga school. Each school was generally influenced by both aspects. The Yoga school organised and improved the traditional Yoga practices and theories which helped promote the formation of religious practice theories of many Indian religious and philosophical schools that arose still later.
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The theories and ways of practice of Yoga exerted an influence on both Brahmanism (orthodox school) and Buddhism (non-orthodox school).
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The Vedānta School of the Brahmanism absorbed a lot of Yoga elements. Many Vedānta thinkers borrowed extensively from Yoga practices, and considered the “imported” Yoga elements highly instrumental in helping them grasp the Brahman.
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The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the Samkhya school. There was no concept of creator-deity in the early-day Samkhya school, but over time, due to the influence of the Yoga school, the later-day Samkhya school started to accept the concept of creator-deity in its philosophical system.
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The literature of the Vaiśesika school and Nyāya school also contains elements of Yoga practices. Although said two schools never addressed these Yoga elements as their main subject of interest, they mentioned them frequently in discussing their own epistemological concepts or principles.
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An important practice of Buddhism, meditation owes its origin to the ancient Yoga practices. After the Yoga school emerged, Mahayana Buddhism was also heavily influenced by the school.
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In addition to influencing other schools of thought, the yoga school was also influenced by other philosophical schools and absorbed some of their ideas and theories. Buddhism, for instance, has been a huge source of influence. The fourth chapter of the *Yoga-sūtra* was widely deemed to be added later, in which a lot of Buddhist elements were adopted. Therefore, it can be claimed that the Yoga school and Buddhism have exerted mutual influence upon each other throughout the course of their development.
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The influence of the theories and practices of the yoga school still lingered strongly in contemporary Indian society. Many contemporary Indian thinkers or philosophers advocated, to varying extents, the practice of Yoga, including Dayananda Saraswati (1824~1883), Svāmi Vivekananda (1863~1902), and Aurobindo Ghose (1872~1950).
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It must be pointed out that the concept of "yoga" in contemporary India had differed greatly from its ancient concept. For instance, the “yoga” mentioned by Svāmi Vivekānanda actually refers to all major aspects of his teachings, including religious beliefs, ethics, and philosophical doctrines. Aurobindo Ghose also incorporated some new connotations into its traditional concept by propounding such concepts as “The Life Divine” and “Integral Yoga”, all of which were never mentioned or discussed in ancient yoga literature such as *Yoga-sūtra*. So it is fair to say that the Yoga theories had undergone significant new developments in later years.
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The ancient Yoga school also exerted important influence on Neo-Platonism in the west and religions in Iran, China, and Japan, which further extended to still other parts of the world in contemporary times. For instance, there are now many yoga research centers in Europe and the United States, with yoga's positive role in the field of general healthcare and fitness also gaining increasing attention.
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Theory and Practice of Yoga
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According to *Yoga-sūtra* and most commentaries thereon, the theoretical system of the yoga school is primarily comprised of the following concepts: mind activities; *Samadhi*; seer and the seen; eight limbs; and *siddhis*.
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Aurobindo Ghose
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Mind Activities (vrttayah)
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*Yoga-sūtra* defines Yoga as “the mastery of the activities of the mind-field”, positing that there are five mind activities: correct perception, incorrect perception, imagination, sleep and memory.
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*Correct perception* means accurate, truthful general information in daily life, and may be acquired by partyaksa, anumana and agama directly.
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*Incorrect perception* is based on false information and on perception of what is not the true form.
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*Imagination* is verbal information which can distinguish or divide things and is followed by concepts which are devoid of reality.
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*Sleep* is the mind-consciousness mode which is supported by the absence of objective awareness.
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*Memory* is the retained impression of experienced objects.
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According to the definition of yoga contained in the *Yoga-sūtra*, it is concerned with attaining a state of tranquil abiding (Samadhi) free of external influences, because the five mind activities are actually the product of external influences (“Xiang”). Both correct perception and incorrect perception are reflection of external objects and manifestation of people’s consciousness with regards to their interaction with the external world. The “correct perception” mentioned here refers to a mind activity that correctly reflects the worldly characteristics of external objects, while the “incorrect perception” is a mind activity that incorrectly reflects the worldly characteristics of external objects; “imagination” is a mind activity that arises out of differentiating external objects; “sleep” is a mind activity that is actually spawned from sleepers’ interaction with external objects when he or she is awake; and “memory” is also a mind activity that stems from external objects, since it is mainly a product of recollection of external objects. All in all, these five mind activities cannot exist apart from external objects, and what external objects manifest is mainly of an insubstantial, illusive nature, which can only harass and disturb. In the opinion of yogis, only by isolating oneself from the influences of illusive, unreal external objects can one truly attain a state of physical and mental tranquility.
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A Yoga practitioner, rock carving
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Although among the five activities there are both correct ones and incorrect ones, the Yoga school held that they all posed hindrances to the attainment of the highest state of wisdom, and therefore should be suppressed, or put specifically, “eliminated” through long periods of “practice” and “abandonment of desires”. “Practice” means to make continuous efforts to achieve mental tranquility, which requires the deepest absorption and great exertions to fend off the external influences; and “abandonment of desires” refers to the efforts to abandon the pursuit of external things, namely to get rid of worldly pleasures and special, transcendental pleasures (such as heavenly pleasures). Through “practice” and “abandonment of desires” one can finally attain the blessed state of “Samadhi”.
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*Samadhi* - The “samadhi” concept adopted by the Yoga school means the collectedness of the mind on a single object through calming and/or increasing mental activities, also sometimes referred to as “Samāpatti” in the *Yoga-sūtra*.
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The *Yoga-sūtra* divides “samadhi” into two types: “*Savikalpa Samadhi*” and “*Nirvikalpa Samadhi*”.
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*Savikalpa Samadhi*: A state of consciousness in which one knows one’s own consciousness but remains in a subject-object relationship with the world.
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*Nirvikalpa Samadhi*: The highest, transcendent state of consciousness in which there is selflessness, no-mind, non-duality and the subject-object relationship momentarily disappears. It is the highest samadhi-state of non-dual union with one’s own consciousness.
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The *Yoga-sūtra* also discusses the means to attaining “Nirvikalpa Samadhi”. The author held that one must rely on confidence, stamina, introspective memory, concentration force and profound insight to reach this blessed state. In addition, “Nirvikalpa Samadhi” can also be achieved by the method of profound religious meditation upon the Supreme Lord. The Supreme Lord is that special person who is not affected by troubles, actions, developments or by subconscious motivations. “Of Him, the sacred syllable āum (om) is the designation. That sound is repeated, murmured constantly for realising its meaning. As a result there is inwardness of the sense consciousness and the disappearance of obstacles to progress.” These obstacles are disease, idleness, doubt, inattentiveness, lack of energy and prone to sensuality, mistaken views, not being able to maintain the progress attained, unsteadiness in progression, scattered mental and emotional energy. Distress, depression, nervousness and laboured breathing are the symptoms of a distracted state of mind. For the removal of the obstacles, there should be the practice of a standard method used in the pursuit of the reality (*tattva*). The abstract meditation resulting from the serenity of the mento-emotional energy comes about by friendliness, compassion, cheerfulness and non-responsiveness to happiness, distress, virtue and vice or by regulating the exhalation and inhalation or by fixing the mento-emotional energy on someone who is without craving; or by conduct Dhyana (meditation) on any random object.
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When called “samāpatti”, “samadhi” can be divided into four categories: *savitarkā-samāpatti*, *nirvitarka-samāpatti*, *savicāra-samāpatti* and *nirvicāra-* *samāpatti* which in their respective order, represent a progressive process.
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*Savitarkā-samāpatti* is when the unity, word, purpose, knowledge and imagination completely mixed.
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*Nirvitarka-samāpatti* is when the memory is completely purified and the essential inquiring nature disappears.
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*Savicāra-samāpatti* and *nirvicāra-samāpatti* depends on the yogi's interest in particular subtle phenomena, approaching to reality of an object.
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Though by progressing through the four samāpattis mentioned above the yogi can achieve a fairly high level of dhyana, the Yoga school maintained that these four samāpattis are “seeded Samadhi”, meaning that although the yogi has gradually expunged those distractions or impressions, he or she has not yet completely eliminated the lingering latent force (seed) resulting from his or her past karmas. If he or she can go one step further and eliminate or at least effectively suppress the latent force inherent in the “seeded samadhi”, the blessed state of “seedless samadhi” may finally be achieved.
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The Yoga School held that the dynamic *kriyā yoga* practices which make for union with the Soul are: austerity, spiritual reading, and complete obedience to the Master. “Austerity” is an act to purify one’s mind; “spiritual reading” refers to the reciting of pure words (such as Om) again and again; and “complete obedience to the Master” means to dedicate everything to the Supreme Lord.
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The *Yoga-sūtra* specifies five hindrances: the darkness of unwisdom, self-assertion, lust, hate, attachment. The darkness of ignorance is the field of the others. It is exhibited when what is temporary, impure, distressful and mundane, is identified as being eternal, pure, joyful and spiritual, respectively. Self-assertion comes from thinking of the Seer and the instrument of vision as forming one self. Lust is the results from the sense of enjoyment. Hate is the results from the sense of pain. Attachment is the desire toward life, even in the wise, carried forward by its own energy.
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The Yoga school maintained that *asaya* (latent force) produced by one’s behaviour was rooted in *klesa*. From this root there grow and ripen the fruits of birth, of the life-span, of all that is tasted in life. As long as people remain in this state, they cannot escape from sorrow and pain.
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**Seer and the Seen** - The Yoga School held that sorrow is an integral part of reincarnation, and therefore, to discuss the reason for reincarnation is to discuss the reason for the generation of sorrow, which concerns the basic philosophical theories held by the Yoga school. The school maintained that fruits of rejoicing or affliction are sprung from holy or unholy works done in the past during the process of human survival. Changes belong to affliction and reincarnation is a process of change with a lot of differential things, therefore, all differential things belong to affliction. In the opinion of Yoga school, the generation of reincarnation is related to the two entities. The *Yoga-sūtra* states that, “The cause of what is to be warded off, is the absorption of the Seer in the Seen.” And the “seer” and “the seen” here refer to the “prakriti” and “purusha” directly relating to the reincarnation, respectively.
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It is widely acknowledged that the yoga school borrowed extensively from the Samkhya school, which held that reincarnation results from the combination of “prakriti” and “purusha”. In the philosophical system of the yoga school, the two entities are called “the seer” and “the seen”, respectively. Both schools believed that “purusha” is a spiritual or positive entity, while “prakriti” is a material or negative entity. When “purusha” affects “prakriti”, the two will combine, generating all things or all kinds of life phenomena and giving rise to reincarnation. During this process, “purusha” can be called “the seer”, while “prakriti” may be referred to as “the seen”.
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The Yoga school believed that the “Seer” is pure vision; and “the seen” have manifestation, action, inertia as their property. They are formed by the elements and the sense-powers. They make for experience and for liberation. The very essence of things seen is that they exist for the Seer.
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The school held that the cause for association of the Seer with things seen is the darkness of unwisdom. If the darkness of unwisdom were eliminated, the combination could not exist. In order to eliminate the darkness of unwisdom and make the Seer get rid of the Seen, we must obtain the help of discrimination (*viveka-khyati*). One significant commentary on the *Yoga-sūtra* by Vyasa states that “*viveka-khyati* is a perception of the different nature of ‘prakriti’ and ‘purusha’”. As soon as the differences between the seer and the seen can be perceived, the combination of the two will come to an end, terminating reincarnation, thereby allowing people to escape sorrow and pain. Therefore, it is of vital importance to acquire “viveka-khyati”,
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Yoga asana according to the philosophies of the Samkhya school and the Yoga school, the latter of which claimed that to acquire the “viveka-khyati” one will need to rely on a particular set of yoga practices, ie The Eight Limbs of Yoga.
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Indian miniature painting of a Hindu ascetic
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The Eight Limbs of Yoga form the structural framework for yoga practice. They are: the commandments, rules, right poise, right control of the life-force, withdrawal, attention, meditation and contemplation.
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There are five commandments that must be obeyed by the yogi: non-injury, truthfulness, abstaining from stealing, from impurity and from covetousness.
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The “rules” or “fixed observances” include: cleanliness, contentment, austerity, study and persevering devotion to God. From purity follows a withdrawal from enchantment over one’s own body as well as a cessation of desire for physical contact with others. Supreme happiness is gained via contentment. Impurities can be removed and special powers can be received in the body through austerity. By studying and reading, we can communicate with the Lord. “Samadhi” can be realised by the persevering devotion to God.
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Right poise must be firm and without strain. Right poise is to be gained by steady and temperate effort and by setting the heart upon the everlasting. The fruit of right poise is the strength to resist the shocks of infatuation or sorrow.
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There follows the right guidance of the life-currents, the control of the incoming and outgoing breath. It is regulated according to place, time and number. Energy-control which goes beyond the sphere of external and internal is also vital.
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*Pratyahara* refers to the withdrawal of the five senses from external objects, so as to prevent the mind from getting distracted by the external world.
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*Dharana* is the fixing of the mind in a single spot (any chosen object).
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*Dhyana* is a progression of dharana, ie sustained concentration on the meditated object.
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*Samadhi* is the highest state of wisdom for yogi practitioners, wherein only the “object” shines forth in the mind, with the consciousness and the object become fused together; even self-awareness disappears in the state of samadhi.
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The Yoga school called the first five levels “external aids to yoga” (*bahiranga sadhana*), and the last three “internal aids to Yoga (*antaranga sadhana*). The external aids to Yoga, aka *bahiranga sadhana*, focus on moral, ethical and physical disciplines; and the internal aids to Yoga, aka *antaranga sadhana* (Raja Yoga), focus on spiritual practices.
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The Yoga school attached great importance to the internal aids to Yoga (*antaranga sadhana*), believing them to be “more interior” than the other five. The three levels of the *antaranga sadhana* are also called *samyama*, by acquiring which one can finally reach an enlightened state.
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Siddhis - Yoga school held that certain types of miraculous force can be obtained through samyama. This kind of miraculous force is in essence a
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Samadhi of Completion: Secret Tibetan Yoga Illuminations from the Qing Court
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supernormal power, aka *siddhis*. The force differs depending on the specific objects of samyama. The *Yoga-sūtra* mentioned many types of *siddhis*, which refer primarily to certain knowledge or abilities normal people could rarely acquire. For instance, through samyama on one’s body, one can become invisible; via samyama on differences between speeches and objects, one can understand animals’ sounds; through samyama on perception, one can read minds; through samyama on behaviour and consequences thereof, one can gain valuable insights into death; via samyama on the latent force, one can acquire knowledge about his or her former life; and, through samyama on animals, the sun, the moon, the stars, body organs and functions thereof, etc one can accordingly obtain a wealth of supernatural knowledge and miraculous ability. In addition, one may also acquire the viveka-khyati to distinguish between *sattva* (prakriti) and *purusa* (purusha). Once the yogis achieve this particular “viveka-khyati”, he can gain a mastery over all existences and infinite knowledge. If yogi went further and got rid of “viveka-khyati”, he could destroy the seeds of evil and entre into an absolute independent state. In this state, sattva (prakriti) and purusa (purusha) have the same nature of cleanness. Both of them exist independently without combination. Thus there is no basic condition for reincarnation, which makes suffering elimination possible. This is a state pursued by the Samkhya school and the Yoga school.
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An illustration from *Samadhi of Completion: Secret Tibetan Yoga Illuminations from the Qing Court*
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The Yoga-sūtra also discussed the means to achieving “siddhis”, claiming that there are five sources where it derives: firstly, people are born with it; those who are born with siddhis must have practiced Yoga in their past lives; secondly, people acquired it with the help of medicine or herbs; thirdly, people can achieve it through spells or incantations; fourthly, people can acquire it through austerities; and fifthly, people can acquire it via the samadhi, ie threefold power of attention, meditation and contemplation.
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Among the five sources mentioned above, the Yoga school put the greatest emphasis on the fifth one. It maintained that by achieving siddhis through samadhi, the yogi never left behind any asaya (latent force or momentum) but only a karma that is “neither white nor black,” which is similar to “avipāka-karma” in Buddhism. According to the *Yoga-sūtra* and other relevant literature, if the yogi can perceive the difference between the seer and the seen and acquire the “viveka-khyati”, and rid themselves of fixation, karma, sorrow and dirtiness, he may finally achieve the samadhi of the “dharma-meghah-s” type, in which the “seeds” will be destroyed, enabling one to break out of reincarnation cycles, escape pain and get delivered.
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**Influence in China** - The Yoga school made some improvements and also some systematisation efforts on the ancient Indian yoga practices which had exerted a noticeable influence on many popular schools of religious philosophy in ancient India. For instance, Buddhism absorbed a lot of elements from the school. Therefore, when Buddhism spread to China, the theories and ways of practice of the Yoga school were also brought to China and went on to make a noteworthy impact in the country.
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The Yoga school emphasised the suppression of the modifications of the mind which bears considerable similarity to the Buddhist meditation. Chinese Zen emphasised that meditation shall be separated from appearance externally and mind shall not be influenced internally. In fact, this is the modifications of the mind required by the yoga school and generated from the suppression on influence by external unreal things. Besides, such concepts as the eight limbs, samadhi and siddhis advocated by the yoga school also exist in Indian and Chinese Buddhism in varying forms. The Buddhist essential Threefold Training in discipline, meditation and wisdom also overlaps to a large extent with relevant practices of the Yoga school. The first two of the eight limbs of Yoga school prescribe rules similar to those contained in Buddhist precepts. The state of “samadhi” pursued by the yoga school is also close to the Buddhist Dhyāna. The highest wisdom or truth sought by the school is also highly similar to the Buddhist “wisdom”. Many such yoga elements were mixed with relevant Buddhist concepts and enjoyed wide popularity in ancient China.
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An illustration from *Samadhi of Completion: Secret Tibetan Yoga Illuminations from the Qing Court*
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The classic texts and theories of the Yoga school have also received widespread scholarly attention in modern China. The *Yoga-sūtra* has been translated into Chinese, with the theories of the school being extensively studied by Chinese scholars. A large number of research papers are being published every year on the *Yoga-sūtra* or yoga theories. There are also many Chinese books that specifically deal with the yoga school. Some Chinese universities also offer Indian philosophy or religion courses that contain information on the yoga school. Some Masters or PhD candidates in relevant Chinese universities or research institutions also chose yoga theories as their thesis or dissertation topic. Besides, in some professional conferences or symposiums held in China, the theories of the school or papers published on the school were also discussed with great interest.
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Among Chinese people, Yoga elements are adopted primarily with the purpose of boosting physical wellness, with the practice of Yoga becoming increasingly popular in the country. Throughout China, Yoga training programmes or classes are offered to dedicated and enthusiastic fans.
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(*Yao Weiqun*)
Cites (7)
- Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
- Harappā
- Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
- Yogasūtra — Patañjali (author of the Yogasūtra), Sanskrit
- Mohenjo-daro
- Upanishads — Sanskrit
- Yogasārasaṅgraha — Vijñānabhikṣu 1550, Sanskrit