Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s7.t6: Metaphysics of Wei and Jin Dynasties
Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s7.t6
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Metaphysics of Wei and Jin Dynasties
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During the late Eastern Han Dynasty, three kingdoms period and Eastern and Western Jin Dynasties, “idle talk” (qing-tan or pure conversation) was popular. The fans and followers of “idle talk” (pure talk) lived a dissipated life, boasted of showing off an attitude of the Daoist natural inaction. Their thoughts and statements were referred to as “Metaphysics of the Wei and Jin Dynasties” by the people of later generations. The system of “metaphysics” of Wei and Jin Dynasties contain theory of moralisation and theory of character and talent. The theory of moralisation included debate over existence and non-existence of the fundamental and incidental, debate on statements (sayings) and their connotations and debate on moralisation and the nature and so on which is represented by Wang Bi, He Yan, Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang. The theory on character and talent focused on appreciation of talent, which originated in “*Records on Figures (personnel)*” authored by Liu Shao and was subsequently, introduced in another work titled “*Theory of Four Fundamentals*” authored by Zhong Hui. All the ideas of metaphysics of this period, with spirit of Taoism as its main theme, was combined with Confucian theories and a new system of thought thus emerged based on the convergence of different ideas.
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**Originating Evolution** - Confucianism and Daoism began to integrate in Han Dynasty. Kong Rong while replying to Li Ying said: “Previously respectable Confucius and Daoist saint Lao Zi maintain the relations between the teacher and student. So I also maintain friendly relations with you”. This became a story passed on at that time with admiration. Obviously, in the late Han Dynasty, the scholars admitted that Confucianism and Daoism got blended. In the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Confucius and Lao Zi were deemed homologous. During Zhengshi Period (about 240-249 CE), Wang Bi, He Yan and other scholars studied Lao Zi and Zhuang Zi's sayings, but they preferred to debate over the Confucian classics. For example, He Yan annotated “*The Analects of Confucius*”(*lun-yu*) and Wang Bi authored one book “*Answers to Questions on Analects of Confucius*” and annotated the “*Book of Change*”. Wang Bi and He Yan were born in famous big families, followed the traditions of “idle talk” since the late Han Dynasty; they had discussion between them with many questions raised for each other and analysed any issues with serious arguments over and over again; they raised the status and quality of the “idle talk” to the extent that people desired to imitate their contents and style. They further discussed about the relations between the fundamental and the incidental between “moralisation” (Confucian ethical code) and the “nature” and between sages' emotionless feature and emotional feature. Liu Shao, Fu Gu and other contemporaries played the leading role in the discussion on the “theory of character and talent”. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, evaluation for human personalities and investigation of nature was an important issue which was closely related to talent selection and recruitment system of that time. During the period of “Seven Intellectuals in Bamboo Forest” (zhu-lin qi-xian 255-262 CE), Ji Kang and Ruan Ji adored the nature to put forward a viewpoint of “going beyond moralisation and stressed on following the nature with no constraint”, and believed that “people should be in pursuit of the nature and break away from the limits of moralisation”. The root cause of this viewpoint was that the rulers surnamed Sima of that time concealed all the lawlessness and unfairness of regime under disguise of moralisation. Ji Kang and Ruan Ji felt shameful to wallow in the mire with such rulers as Sima. “*Theory of Four Fundamentals*” authored by Zhong Hui, was based on the theory of Character and Talent with nothing new ideas. In contrast, theorists of moralisation sprang up like
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‘*Records of Personnel (Renwu zhi)*’, *Liu Shao*
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mushrooms from generation to generation with such representative masters like Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang, whose ideas combined together came to be known as “Yuan Kang Metaphysics”. According to Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang, the “nature” and “moralisation” actually never contradicted, and man’s doings were always in divine order of the nature. For example, the “*Chapter of Qiu Shui*” in *Zhuang Zi*, annotated by Guo Xiang, pointed out that “Can people never control horse and cattle for use in their lifetime? Can people never halter cattle or horse? Cattle or horse should be haltered which is their manifested destiny. This seems to be “mandate of heaven”, but this is the natural rule followed by man”. In debate over existence (being) and non-existence (non-being) of fundamental and incidental, Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang put forward such opinions as “self-conversion” and “independent conversion in calmness” and believed that “Existence is self-existence rather than stemming from non-existence. In other words, all things are made by themselves”. Pei Wei authored the book *Theory of Existence* in which he argued that “everything is self-engendered and non-existence has no way for existence”, and also believed that “all sentient things of the world are self-engendered and inevitable rather than stemming from non-existence”. Since then, moralisation theory shifted from “stress on non-existence” to “stress on existence”. By the time of eastern Jin Dynasty (317-420 CE), it has already been 300 years that Indian Buddhism had been introduced in China. Lots of important classics on Buddhism had too been translated and other local writings made debut with profound influence of the Buddhist theory on native culture; the development of metaphysics also accordingly presented different trend during this period compared with previous period. The *“Lie Zi”*, annotated by Zhang Zhan, originally stated that “existence serve the purpose of vanity, while all things are proved by extinction”. However, the argument of “no existence and no non-existence” replaced the argument of existence and non-existence of the fundamental and the incidental, which became a new style and fashion of discussing metaphysics. Since then, the rich contents of metaphysics provided the much needed theoretical grounds to comment on sutras of Buddhism. Following this, the unique characteristic features of the ideas of “metaphysics” gradually faded away. The term “metaphysics” (xuan-xue) was first found in *Book of Jin: Biography of Lu Yun* which says: “there is essentially no metaphysics in the beginning”. However, at that time, the understanding of metaphysics was not the same as that of later periods, during which academic analysis with focus on “idle talk”, facial looks and even family status was attributed to “metaphysics”. In Northern and Southern Dynasties, *Book of Change*, *Lao Zi* and *Zhuang Zi* were crowned as “Three Classics of Metaphysics”. With all this a new school of thought with its own classical form was then taking shape.
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Zhouyi, Laozi, Zhuangzi
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**Philosophical Thoughts - Theory of moralisation** took different views for existence and non-existence of the fundamental and the incidental in two directions ie school of thought stressing on non-existence and the school of thought stressing existence). The school of thought stressing non-existence advocated “non-existence as the basis of everything” and “the doctrine of non-existence governs all things of the universe; everything exists and changes due to the ontology of non-existence. The so-called things in the universe are based on inaction. He Yan clearly put forward that existence is based on non-existence and relies on non-existence. Non-existence is home to all things”. Wang Bi on the other hand flexibly discussed about the inter-dependence of existence and non-existence. He stated that “the heaven and earth are based on fundamental”. Non-existence is such fundamental, and thought that “existence is tangible, finite and limited, while non-existence is absolute and unlimited with the ultimate significance”. Starting from the concept of “basing on non-existence”, he put forward political theory of “stressing on fundamental and depression for the incidental” and “stressing the fundamental and upgrading for the incidental” and thought it necessary to administer with “doctrine”, achieve *laissez-faire* and fundamentally focus on guiding principle without entanglement in detail from the key perspective. School of thought stressing existence believed that “existence is self-engendered”. Pei Wei authored the *Theory of Existence* and argued that “Everything is self-engendered, and non-existence has no way for existence”, and also believed that “all sentient things of the world are self-engendered rather than absolute beings”. Guo Xiang also stated that “non-existence cannot give birth to existence because non-existence is nothing. Existence and all things of the universe result from conversion from voidness”. “Conversion from voidness” means that all things were engendered in the profound and everlasting realm beyond the knowledge of humans. All things never hinder each other, but all the things together give birth to the universe and the nature.
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Debate over moralisation and the nature was intended to identify the relationship between the Confucian ethical code and the nature. The nature is the true look of the universe with no artificial features whereas rite, music and moralisation were created by human beings. Institutions, systems, rite, music and moralisation cultivated and restraint the people’s behaviors and emotions. According to He Yan and Wang Bi, “moralisation (purpose) stems from the nature (means)”; moralisation is incidental and tangible, and the natural is fundamentally intangible. But Wang Bi took faith in Taoism and referred to Taoism and Confucian thoughts, who believed that “ceremony is nothing but a kind of tangible constraints, which is falseness with limits. It is necessary to start from the ontology of nothing, remove the ceremonial constraints, achieve the real morality that rite, music and moralisation target at, and make all things in place”. According to Wang Bi,
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Annotations and Commentary on the Analects of Confucius, He Yan (Wei), Xing Bing (Song)
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[Figure: *Book of Changes (Zhouyi), an extant* *block-printed copy of the Ming Dynasty*]
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Daoism and Confucianism demonstrated homology so that “Existence was reflected because Confucius advocated non-existence, while Lao Zi advocated existence and disadvantages were revealed”. Ruan Ji and Ji Kang put forward a viewpoint of “going beyond moralisation and keep unconstrained in the nature” due to dissatisfaction with the rulers surnamed Sima. After the rulers surnamed Sima usurped the regime of Wei Kingdom, they advocated ruling the country with filial piety, but they avoided to mention loyalty closely related to filial piety for purpose of downplaying the illegality of regime through the replacement of connotation of “moralisation”. Moralisation, referred by Ji Kang, was different from that referred by Wang Bi and He Yan, which was manipulated by rulers and descended into opposite side of human nature. Ji Kang regarded ceremony and moralisation as chains, and believed ceremony and moralisation were the shackles of human nature and went contrary to the nature. Only going beyond moralisation and removing ceremony was the way out to recover the nature and comply with the truth. Guo Xiang’s viewpoint was different from Ji Kang’s, who stated that “moralisation is the nature”. As Taoism was not respected and Seven Intellectuals in Bamboo Forest (Ji Kang and others intellectuals) got adrift and never followed decorum despite great reputation, Guo Xiang put forward a proposition that “I can neither engender creatures, nor creatures engender me. So I am the nature. moralisation was inborn existence which was the same as the nature and should not be destroyed. According to Chuang Tzu, “Haltering horse head or piercing cattle nose is human behavior”. Guo Xiang believed that “It is inevitable to halter horse head or pierce cattle nose in the lifetime. As a result, moralisation is created by humans, but the reason is natural”.
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Debate over sayings and connotations was longstanding. According to *Book of Change · Xi Ci*, “Books are unable to cover all sayings and sayings are unable to cover all connotations”. In the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Confucianism and Daoism got blended and the *Book of Change* was held in high esteem and explanation on “theory of change” gained its popularity. In interpreting the “theory of change”, scholars often faced up to the relationship among saying, exterior and connotation. With such questions demanding solutions, the philosophical foundation of metaphysics was laid. The “Sayings” refer to the language form, such as sound and other symbols. Connotation refers to meaning of the language and contained truth. Exterior refers to image and imago described by the language. According to theory of moralisation, there were three issues for debate over sayings and connotations viz sayings beyond connotations, sayings on a par with connotations and connotations beyond sayings. Xun Can put forward a theory of sayings beyond connotations ie “Sayings are overshadowed by connotations”, especially the sage’s connotations are unable to be revealed by exterior. Of course, the language is unable reach its deep connotation. In addition, the fundamental reason for the general things is unable to be explained exactly. This theory revealed the limitations of language, but believed that sage could break through the limitations. Ouyang Jian put forward a theory of sayings on a par with connotations ie “Exploring the law of things has to rely on the corresponding concepts and appellations. Different things have different definitions, while different emotions have different appellations. Appellations change with things. Appellations and things echo with each other. Wang Bi held the theory of connotations beyond sayings, and believed that “in the concrete world, the appellation in the language cannot accurately express the speakers’ inner meaning but the imago can convey the meanings beyond language. He put forward three concepts of “sayings” eg “exterior” (expression) and “connotation” and believed the relationship among saying, exterior and connotation as follows: “Imago described by language can fully convey speaker’s meaning, while the language can objectively describe the image. This is because the appellation in the language is derived from static image, and static image is derived from final versions of changing things and changes in the human minds. Wang Bi made argument for relationship among "sayings", "exterior" and "connotation", and further put forward the method of cognition in "understanding the exterior despite lack of the sayings and understanding connotation despite the lack of the exterior" which greatly promoted the development of metaphysics.
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Book of Changes (Zhouyi), annotated by Zhu Xi (Song), Zengyantang edition, Qing Dynasty
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In the "theory of moralisation", debate over sages' emotionless feature and emotional feature was launched between He Yan and Wang Bi. From the perspective of pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy, He Yan divided people into three categories: ordinary people, virtuous people (man of virtue and talent) and saints and thought that "Ordinary people are unable to control the temper and cannot maintain balance of mind. With ordinary emotions like the joys and sorrows, the virtuous are able to make the emotions limited. Ordinary people keep unconstrained emotions. But Yan Hui keeps his anger in control". The saints achieve the aloof status at will while fully maintaining a balance of their minds. Therefore, saints' emotionless feature doesn't mean that saints have no emotions such as joys and sorrows. But they don't express their emotions like ordinary people. From the perspective of the objects generated by pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy. Wang Bi thought that "Saints would not let objects influence their state of emotions. But a saint is also emotional". He said: "Saints are equal to gods. They have also emotions like ordinary people. However, with an enlightened mind and some divine qualities, saints make their existence possible without worldly desires. With the same emotions, saints respond to objects in a different way and fashion". Wang Bi cited an example and said that "Confucius cried for Yan Zi's death and felt sad for the illness of Bo Niu which proved that saints too are emotional. Saints have reached the status and position of controlling their emotions and see that what they do, their activities do not overstep the boundary line. Thus, even though they can respond to objects (external environment) but never be bothered by objects".
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The theory on character and talent was a special theory which evolved in the course of bringing about certain change in the imperial examination system in late Han and early Wei Dynasty. Due to chaos caused by wars of devastation, the scholarly class migrated from their native places to other places of safety and security; the township-level imperial exam so far being held according to tradition remained discontinued. During the regime of the Emperor Ming of the Wei Dynasty (who reigned during 226-239 CE), Liu Shao devised the rules and regulations to conduct the tests and examinations for the examinee. In order to ensure the effectiveness of test method, it was necessary to evaluate characters and recommend potential officers according to their talent and character. The "*Records of Personnel*", authored by Liu Shao, took the ideas of Confucianism, Daoism, moralisation and legalism together. It was a monograph talking of the ways on how to make assessment of the people, which met the need of that time. But the "*Records on Personnel*" discussed the ideas of Yin-Yang, image and Spirit, that match with the heavenly ideas of he saints". According to History *Book of the Three Kingdoms Period* · *Book of the Wei Dynasty* · *Biography of Fu Gu*, Fu Gu often discussed about similarity and difference of talent and character and Zhong Hui gathered all those opinions of Fu Gu. The *Theory of the Four Fundamentals*, authored by Zhong Hui, collected popular opinions of that time on talent and character, accompanied by his own comments. A chapter titled *A New Account of Tales of the World* · *Literature* to be found in the *Book of the Wei Dynasty*: says that the theory of "four fundamentals discusses the similarities between talent and character (represented by prime minister Fu Gu); dissimilarities between talent and character (represented by chief secretary Li Feng), integration between talent and character (represented by assistant minister Zhong Hui) and separation between talent and character (represented by cavalry officer Wang Guang)”. Actually Fu Gu and Zhong Hui’s theories on talent and character were simply developed to evaluate characters for practical purpose, so its philosophical value was less than that of “Records on Personnel” authored by Liu Shao.
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Book of Changes (Zhouyi), an old manuscript
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After southward migration of the scholars during the period of Eastern Jin Dynasty, the then prevailing ideas on metaphysics also crossed the Yangtze River. With the spread of Buddhism in China, topics of scholars’ discussion were also influenced so that the argument of “no existence and no non-existence” replaced the argument of existence and non-existence of the fundamental and the incidental. Buddhist scholars also introduced
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‘Records of the Three Kingdoms- Book of the Wei Dynasty (San Guo Zhi: Weishu)’, compiled by Chen Shou, (Western Jin Dynasty), Qing Dynasty edition
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metaphysics into the annotations and interpretations of the Buddhist sutras. “Sutras are cited and referred to while explaining the contents of other books”. For example, when Hui Yuan mentioned “real look”, he drew an analogy from Zhuang Zi theory. When Zhi Daolin discussed about existence and non-existence, he took Wang Bi and Guo Xiang’s thoughts as the clue. Metaphysics also profoundly influenced the Buddhist theory itself at that time. For example, when Dao An sought to explain the meaning of emptiness, we very often find the influence of Wang Bi’s “theory on sayings and connotations” in them. He also paid the equal attention to “removal of disorderly intention and appearance of the origin”. Influenced by Guo Xiang’s thoughts and methods, Zhi Daolin said: “Reason for material existence of things is not self-engendered. The so-called material existence is also empty”. And the relationship was similar to the relationship between existence and obscurity. However, with the development of Buddhism in the Six Dynasties, scholars gradually refrained from discussing about metaphysics.
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(*Jiang Julang*)
Linked texts (1)
- 義淨 — Classical Chinese