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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s7.t9: Six Orthodox Schools

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s7.t9

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English

Six Orthodox Schools

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Six orthodox (*astika*) schools (*Liupaizhexue*) refer to six main schools in the Brahmanic philosophy of ancient India, eg *Samkhya*, *saamkhya-yoga*, *Vaisesika*, *Nyaya*, *Mimamsa* and *Vedanta*. They respected the authority of *Veda* which is regarded as a holy document by Brahmanism and Hinduism. The origin of thought has a long history in ancient time. They have been developed from some thoughts in *Vedas* and *Upanishads*. They have many believers in later generations, and usually take the main position in the thought circle. Therefore, they are regarded as the orthodox schools of ancient India philosophy.

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Some thoughts of six orthodox (*astika*) schools (*Liupaizhexue*) already appeared in 1000-600 BCE. But the formation of their independent schools was in 300 BCE to the beginning of the Christian era.

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Samkhya formed the independent school in about 400 BCE. According to legend, the founder of this school was Kapila, at that time. At present, the existing earliest document of this school is the *Samkhya-karika*, which is a systematic document made by Isvarakrsna in about 400 CE. The time for karika is not that early compared with other basic classics of other orthodox philosophy schools. However, almost all systematic classics of *Samkhya* before they were lost were regarded as the representative document of ancient *Samkhya*. Its position is the same as that of basic classics in general orthodox philosophy schools. After *Samkhya-karika*, the main works of this school are an explanation to *Samkhya-karika*. The basic theoretical frame of Samkhya is the so called “two realities and twenty five concepts”

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Hetuvidya Nyaya Dvara Sastra, Reign of Guangxu, 1881 edition

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(namely 25 basic concepts in theories of this school - *Purusha*, *Prakrti*, *Buddhi*, self control, eye, ear, nose, tongue, skin, vocal organ, hand, foot, excretory organ, reproductive organ, heart, fragrant, flavour, colour, feel, sound, earth, water, fire, wind and air). Its various philosophical thoughts are included in this frame. *Samkhya* holds a parinama-vada theory, which believed that things in the world and life were formed by the mutual interaction of material *Prakrti* and psychogenic Purusha (two realities). According to this school, transformed things (other [Figure: The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (front cover)]

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23 concepts) form the samsara (world). This world is full of suffering. If one wanted to be relieved, he/she had to depend on the highest intelligence of the "two realities and 25 concepts" of *Samkhya* to distinguish *Purusha* and *Prakrti* to get rid of *samsara* and get relieved.

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*Saamkhya-yoga* formed the independent school in about 200 BCE. According to legend, its founder was Patanjali at that time. The basic classic of this school was the *Yoga Sutra* of Patanjali. The existing *Yoga Sutra* included contents which were added in later generations and it was finally formed in 300-500 BCE. After *Yoga Sutra*, books of saamkhya-yoga were mainly an explanation and note on *Yoga Sutra*. The appearance of saamkhya-yoga has a theoretical systematisation on the ancient yoga practice in the Indus Civilisation period. It also had important influences on the formation of cultivation theories of philosophy schools of religion in India. *Saamkhya-Yoga* devotes to restrain the role of the heart to reach the samadhi state. Its specific cultivation method is the so called "eight steps of Raja yoga", eg Yom, niyam, asan, pranayama, pratyahar, dharana, dhyan, samadhi. The later three steps of the eight steps are called "general restrain". Through it, people can gain various magical powers, distinguish Prakrti and Purusha and finally reach the "Dharma Megha samadhi". In this samadhi, various samsara seeds can be destroyed to achieve final release.

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Vaisesika formed the independent school in about 200 BCE. According to legend, its founder was Kanada in that time. He wrote the basic classic *Vaisesika Sutra* for this school. The existing *Vaisesika Sutra* included contents which were added in later generations. It was finally formed in 200 CE. In about 600 CE, another two important books of Vaisesika appeared, eg *Padarthadharmasamgraha* of Prasastapada and *Vaiśesika-daśa-padārtha-prakarana* of Maticandra. Main philosophical thoughts of Vaisesika were reflected in the contents of these three books. The important theoretical feature of this school is to distinguish the main category of natural phenomenon by the "padārtha" (reality corresponding to concept). Ten padārthas mentioned by this school are: dravya-padārtha (object), guna-padārtha (static property of object), karma-padārtha (dynamic state of object), sāmānya-padārtha (common relations among objects), viśesa-padārtha (difference relation among objects), samavāya-padārtha (indivisible causal relation between the object itself and its property), śakti-padārtha (make object be able to generate specific result jointly or independently), aśakti-padārtha (make object be unable to generate specific result jointly or independently), sādrsýa-padārtha (relative similarity and difference relations among objects) and abhāva-padārtha (nonexistence state of object). In the system of padārtha theory, Vaisesika discussed paramānu theory, pramāna, view of time and space, view on similarity and difference, etc. Vaisesika also pursues liberation. It holds that the understanding of the highest intelligence of padārtha theory can get rid of the samsara and reach the supreme good state.

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Nyaya formed the independent school in about 100 CE. According to legend, its founder was Gautama at that time. He wrote the basic classic *Nyaya-sutra* for this school. The existing *Nyaya-sutra* contained contents added by people in later generations. It was finally formed in about 300-400 CE. After *Nyaya-sutra*, books of Nyaya were mainly explanation and note on *Nyaya-sutra*. Nyaya takes the "Sixteen categories (padārtha)" as its basic

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[Figure: The Purva Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini (front cover)]

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system. The so-called *padārtha* refers to reality. In discussing and debating issues, Nyaya put forward 16 basic concepts or categories, eg means of valid knowledge, objects of valid knowledge, doubt, purpose, example, conclusion, the constituents of a syllogism, argumentation, ascertainment, debate, disputations, destructive criticism, fallacy, quibble, refutations, and points of the opponent's defeat. This 16 *padārthas* form the basic theoretical frame of this school. In explaining these *padārthas*, *Nyaya* put forward theories such as categories of four pramāṇas, basic syllogism for five step method, reflection and reasons for reasoning and debating failure, etc. *Nyaya* regards the intelligence of 16 categories (*padārtha*) as the basic way for liberation.

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Mimamsa formed the independent school in about 200 BCE. According to legend, its founder was Jaimini at that time. He wrote the basic classic *Mimamsa-sutra* for this school. The existing *Mimamsa-sutra* contains contents which were added by people in the later generations. It was finally formed in about 100 CE. Earlier explanations on *Mimamsa-sutra* were made by Sabara in the 5th century CE. Main Mimamsa thinkers after Sabara were Kumārila and Prabhakara in 7th and 8th century CE. These two people played an important role for the later development of Mimamsa. Mimamsa takes the Vedic sacrifice as its main object of study. They believe the correctness of Veda canon

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‘A Brief History of Indian Philosophy’, Shang Yongtong, 2008, (front cover)

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and efficiency of sacrifice. Corresponding to this standing, the basic thought for this school is the “sound permanent residence theory”. The so called sound refers to language, concept or knowledge, specially refers to language or knowledge of Vedas. Mimamsa held that this concept and knowledge was born in nature rather than man-made. It is permanent and absolute. Common language and concept is the displaying of the natural sound and shall on the basis of this natural sound. Mimamsa emphasises on “sound permanent residence theory” to prove the immutability and supremacy of Veda and its thoughts. Mimamsa once largely broke the theism of ancient India, absorbed and developed the padārtha theory of Vaisesika.

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Main thoughts of Vedanta were put forward in the Upanishad. But it did not form an independent school until in about 100 CE. According to legend, its founder was Badarayana at that time. He wrote the basic classic *Brahma-sutra* for this school. This school generated many branches later. Each branch was mainly formed according to different opinions on the Brahman atman relationship theory mentioned in documents, such as Upanishad, etc. These branches mainly are: bhedabheda-vada of Badarayana, *advaita* of Sankara (788-820 CE), *Viwistadvaita Vedanta* of Rāmānuja (about 11-12th centuries CE) and Dualism of Madhava (about 13th centuries CE). Bhedabheda-vada holds that: as the creator or fundamental reason of the world, Brahman is not the same with *Atman*. But in the aspects that any *Atman* has *Brahman* property and anything cannot exist without *Brahman*, *Brahman* and *Atman* are the same. *Advaita* holds that: *Brahman* or the greater self is the foundation for all things, and all things are the illusion of *Brahman* or greater self. Nothing is independent from Brahman or greater self. *Atman* (phenomenal world) is neither a part of *Brahman* nor the variation of *Brahman*. As a phenomenon of life, numerous Atman and greater selves are the same thing in nature. They are reflected differently for body restriction. They are the same in fact. *Viwistadvaita Vedanta* holds that: *Atman* (small self or the phenomenal world) is the property or constituent part of *Brahman* (entity or whole). Although property or a constituent part belongs to the entity or whole, the property or constituent part cannot be regarded as unreal. In the meantime, it shall be realised that, the phenomenal world (small self) is not void, but is only limited to the property or constituent part of the highest entity. The highest entity of objects is the *Brahman* which cannot be divided. Dualism holds that: although *Brahman* is the foundation, it is not the same with atman and these two concepts are different. Both of them are entity in a dualism relationship.

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Thoughts of six orthodox (*astika*) schools (Liupaizhexue) took the leading position in the philosophy history in India. They also have great influence in the thought circle of modern and contemporary India. Particularly, theories of *Vedanta* are still the leading traditional philosophy in the thought circle of modern India.

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In ancient times, thoughts of six orthodox (astika) schools (Liupaizhexue) were also spread to China with Buddhism. In Chinese Buddhist sutra, there are many contents on reporting or criticising thoughts of these schools. The academic world in modern and contemporary China also pays much attention to these schools. There are many research papers on these six schools in Chinese learned periodicals. Fundamental classics or document of these schools have been translated into Chinese in China. There are also many Chinese research monographs on these schools. In college curriculum, there are many contents on these schools. There are many paper titles on these schools.

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