Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s9.t1: Laozi
Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s9.t1
- Language
- English
Contents
- v1.c7.s9.t1.15 — 3 parts
Laozi
v1.c7.s9.t1.1
Laozi's dates of birth and death have been hitherto debatable. His family name being Li, with given name of Er, and another version of his cognomen is Lao Dan. He is creator of Taoism School of Learning, and a great thinker of the Spring and Autumn Period.
v1.c7.s9.t1.2
Brief biographic notes
v1.c7.s9.t1.3
Based on Collected Biographies of Laozi and Han Fei of the Historical Records by Sima Qian, Laozi was a native of Qurenli of the town of Lixiang, the Ku County, the State of Chu (presnt-day Taiqinggong Town, Luyi County, He’nan Province). It is said that at his birth date his hair was snow-white, and hence the cognomen of Laozi, an old man. He was once the head of imperial archive and library of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, in charge of state-collected books, maps, archive and documents. Confucius is known to ask him for advice on the rites of the Zhou Dynasty. Laozi had these to say to him: What you asked about the man and the rites initiated by him no longer exist, even his bones are decaying, only his words still ring in our ears. If a man of honour's fortune turns, he could get on cart to accept official appointment, but if he lives at the wrong time, then his lot is like a piece of fluffy grass that would be gone with the wind. I’m told that a good businessman will stash and hide away his stock of goods, and only present to the outsiders the facade of seemingly empty warehouse, so is the man of honour’s way of doing things, who possesses noble and gracious moral character with modest appearance as if the dull and stupid. To cast away your conceit and excessive desire, and abandon your affected look and outgrown ambition which would bring nothing good to yourself .That's all for what I can offer you as an advice. These words reveal Laozi’s attainment of virtue, that is, an advocate of being ready to make change for adaptability and conservatively receding to have fewer desires. Confucius highly admires nobility of Laozi as he comments: Today I have a chance to see Laozi, isn’t he a loong (means: king-size gentleman)
v1.c7.s9.t1.4
*Nagarjuna's theories*
v1.c7.s9.t1.5
Laozi
v1.c7.s9.t1.6
Historian Sima Qian also described him as a man of moral excellence and extensive learning but in low profile with fervent intent of not seeking to be known to the outside. After having stayed there for long and having witnessed declining of the Zhou House, Laozi finally decided to leave the capital. When he arrived at Hangu Pass, he was stopped and requested by the pass officer Yinxi to write a book. That is the origin of the book of our having today; it is in two parts, elaborating the concepts of Dao and De totalling over 5,000 characters. After he completed and handed over his book, he was allowed to pass through Hangu Pass and hitherto gone into reclusion, and his whereabouts have never been heard of since. In view of the above, Laozi should have been Lao Dan who lived in the end period of the Spring and Autumn, and was senior in age to Confucius. Although Sima Qian was inclined to this version, yet there has been no consensus of this point. History after the Han Dynasty abounds with disputes on Laozi. The recent contemporaries still believe Laozi actually is none other than Lao Dan of the end period of Spring and Autumn, such experts as Ma Xulun, Tang Lan and Guo Moruo. Whereas Fan Wenlan, Hou Wailu and others alleged that Laozi should have lived in the Warring State Period. In short, there has been so far no firm and ascertained dates of Laozi’s birth and death while his life story is no more than brief record and narration highly scattered and fragmentary just like a swan’s footprints found on snow and mud; nevertheless, description of his theoretical features by the scholars of later generations is, for the most part, highly similar.
v1.c7.s9.t1.7
Academic thoughts
v1.c7.s9.t1.8
What it is prevalently referred to with regards to Laozi’s thoughts is the philosophical view reflected in the *Book of Lao Zi*. His ideological system, by inheriting the tradition of what it calls theory laying foundation to create Change Sect, constructed with “Dao” as core also by summing up his own experiences. He attempted to sum up the unitarity and essence of cosmic inventory, and cosmic ontology existed not in the vast heaven and earth, but resided in the minds of people. Dao as natural property of cosmic inventory is antecedent to the existence of Heaven and Earth as he said, “There was something formless yet complete. They existed earlier than Heaven and Earth. Silent and empty, it relies on nothing, moving around forever. We may regard it as the Mother of all things. I do not know its name, so I name it as Dao.” (Quoted from Chapter 25. And all quotations hereinafter are referred only to the chapter number.) Universe is all evolved into being through Dao, as he said, “Dao begets the One; the One consists of Two in opposition - the Yin and Yang; the Two begets the Three; the Three begets all things of the world,” (chapter XXXXII). Moreover, Laozi considers Dao as general basis for the comic existence, believing all things within the Heaven and Earth take shape and grow through Dao. He has the connotation of objective laws, and everything in the universe and including social and human affairs are governed by Dao, as he said, “Man takes Earth as his model; Earth takes Heaven as its model; Heaven takes Dao as its model; Dao takes what is natural as its model,” (chapter XXV). Whereas, Dao is beyond human’s vision and perception, “What cannot be seen is called ‘Yi’ without colour; what cannot be heard is called ‘Xi’ without sound; what cannot be touched is called ‘Wei’ without shape; these three things can be in no way defined, so they are combined into one,” (chapter XIV). Dao exists independently without being hooked on any external things, and is moving perpetually without let-up. “There is a thing formed in an integrated manner, and born earlier than Heaven and Earth. It is silent and empty. It relies on nothing, but it is moving around forever. We may regard it as the mother of all things,” (chapter XXV). In his mind’s eye, Dao features “nothingness” and “the shape without shape”, as Laozi defines in the Chapter 14: “It is categorised as Nothingness, and is called the shape without shape as well as the image without substance. It is hence named as vague and dimly visible,” which suggests Dao is the root of all things on earth and exists forever, but is so indistinct that is beyond our visual perception, nor can be fathomed or ascertained by our mental capacity.
v1.c7.s9.t1.9
Laozi’s philosophy is rich in dialectics, believing all things are in a perpetual process of motion and change, also contain mutually contradictory two facets, putting forth the thought of interdependency of two opposites, as he said, “Therefore Existence and Nothingness beget each other; long and short manifest themselves by comparison; High and low are inclined as well as opposed to each other; musical sound and singing voice harmonize each other; front and back follow each other,” (chapter II). And, he further considers that the both opposite’s sides can be mutually inclusive and mutually transforming, “Disaster hides itself behind good fortune; Good fortune leans against disaster,” (chapter LVIII). The law of motion for everything is to move and develop to the opposite direction, “Cycling is the movement of Dao” (chapter XXXX). He deems the movement of Dao as a circulating movement and ultimately will return to ontology of Dao, as he said, “All things, full of vitality, and finally return to their own roots,” (Chapter 16).
v1.c7.s9.t1.10
In epistemology, Laozi comes up with new ways of understanding things, ie “deeper meditation”. He is aware of limitation of perceptual experience, therefore he needs reliance of unique experiences to experience Dao existence, and thereby he upholds such an epistemology as it is rendered in this way, “Block the openings of knowledge, and shut the door of desires,”(Chapter 52), and “Know everything without going out; and sees Dao of heaven without looking out of the window” (Chapter 47), and “I try my best to be in an extreme emptiness of mind; I try to keep myself in a state of stillness. From the vigorous growth of all things, I perceive the way they move in endless cycles,” (Chapter 16). In short, we should calmly observe all unceasingly changing and moving things in the universe by getting rid of human subjective consciousness, and placing your body and mind in a void and empty realm; he so sticks to this view even so far as to put the understanding of specific matters to be antagonistic to the cognition of cosmic ontology, believing that - “He who seeks learning must increase his knowledge every day; he who seeks Dao must reduce his knowledge very day. He reduces and reduces until he reaches the state of inaction. When reaching the state of inaction, one can succeed in everything,” (Chapter 48).
v1.c7.s9.t1.11
In political idea, Laozi stands for governing a country by doing nothing that goes against nature (ie governing through inaction, or non-interference, or better still rendered in an English equivalent: Laissez-faire), and sees “small country both in terms of territory and population” as a typical ideal state. The way of life he adores is a utopian dream, like “The dog’s barking and the cock’s crowing in one state are heard in another; the people of one state will never have dealings with those of another, even if they get old and die” (Chapter 80). In political practice, he lashes out at rulers, pointing out , “The hunger on the part of the people is the result of exorbitant taxes on the part of the ruler, and making light of life on the part of the people is the result of setting too much store by life on the part of the ruler ”(Chapter 75). Likewise, he views weapons as something ill omen (Chapter 31), opposes the provocation of war and creation of incident, although he does not rule out all kinds of war completely, yet he believes a stratagem of gaining mastery by striking only after the enemy has struck under the circumstances of “having no choice but to use it”. He thinks that advancement of human’s knowledge level and improvement of material life is an important root cause of disaster and crimes in the world, “The more prohibitions there are, the poorer the people become. The more sharp weapons there are, the more prevailing chaos thee is in the state. The more skills technique, the more cunning things are produced. The greater the number of statutes, the greater the number of thieves and brigands,” (Chapter 57); “Banish wisdom, discard knowledge, and the people shall profit a hundredfold; banish love, discard justice, and the people shall recover love of their kin; banish cunning, discard utility, and the thieves and brigands shall disappear,” (Chapter 19). He believes that abandoning knowledge and culture, virtue and morality, crafts and technique, human being shall be simple-minded and innocent, and accordingly a great peace and order, stability and happiness shall prevail. In social life, he made criticism against reality in the end period of the State of Zhou, pointing out what was present then was dynamic process of retrogression, “Virtue comes after the loss of Dao; Benevolence comes after the loss of virtue; Justice comes after the loss of benevolence; rites come after the loss of justice. Thus rites result from the lack of loyalty and good faith, and function as the beginning of the great disorder” (Chapter 38). Such a retrogression process is utterly detrimental to the humanistic cultivation and social stability. It is true that Laozi also advocates morality, but is differed quite distinctly from that of Confucius and Mencius. The morality suggested by Laozi prevailed before the benevolence and justice, which is in a natural state. Confucius was born later than Laozi, and foundation of its theory is benevolence; Mencius, born even much later than Confucius, further expounded benevolence and justice; Xun Zi, the most posterior among the three, attributed everything to the rituals; Han Fei and Li Si, the disciples of Xun Zi, revered law, cunning tactics and power, from then on, crafty tricks and cheat have been surfaced openly, resulting in confusion of people’s mind and social turmoil. In this perspective, what Laozi says is true indeed.
v1.c7.s9.t1.12
In his outlook on life, he believes, “No crime is greater than greediness; no disaster is greater than the lack of contentment; thus the contentment of feeling content is an eternal contentment,” (Chapter 46). Laozi loves the weak but supple, and disdains strong but brittle, believing only a man is openminded with moderate desires, could he be possible to have easy survival and remain invincible, and he uses metaphor of the property of grass and trees, alleging, “While alive, a man’s body is supple; when dead, it becomes hard. While alive, grass and trees are supple, when dead, they become dry and stiff. Thus the hard and strong is of the dying sort; that is why the army, having grown strong, will be wiped out, and the tree, when grown up, will be cut down. Thus the strong and big is inferior to the weak and supple,” (Chapter 76). Therefore the way to keep thing sustainably strong and prosperous is flexible with keeping low profile, as he said, “Though knowing what is masculine, you are ready to play the role of female,” (Chapter 28).
v1.c7.s9.t1.13
Statue of Laozi, Mt. Qingliang, Quanzhou, Fujian, China
v1.c7.s9.t1.14
Profound impact to the later generations
v1.c7.s9.t1.15.1
The Doctrine of Laozi, with profound and far-reaching influence, holds an important position in Chinese ideological history. Taoism was gradually taken shape after his death. Zhuang Zi said in his works of Zhuang Zi - Cantos of Heaven, “Are they Guanyin, and Lao Dan? Aren’t they the most erudite and great immortal in the ancient times? Yes, indeed!” From the eulogy, it is clear that Zhuang Zi is addicted to Taoism, so after the Han Dynasty, the doctrines of Laozi and Zhuang Zi become prevalent hand in hand. The Interior, the first and second volumes of Intention, and Pure Mind of Guan Zi belong to this school of learning. Tian Pian, Shen Dao and Huan Yuan who once visited, on their study tour, the royal school run by the state of Qi may be the representative scholars of this school of learning, and the famous legalist Han Fei was also influenced by their thoughts. In the early Han Dynasty, the school of the Emperor Huang and Laozi prevailed and become the Court Orthodoxy. Senior courtiers like Xiao He and Cao Can are fervent lovers of this school of learning. Then to the Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty when Confucianism was made as an overwhelming Orthodox, Taoism had gradually been in decline, but its influence still retained, as Wang Chong of the Eastern Han Dynasty called his theory as the one that though in violation of Confucianism, it was still in line with sense of Emperor Huang and Laozi doctrines. (Weigh in the Balance - Nature).
v1.c7.s9.t1.15.2
Taoism, combined later with folk belief, has become a religion. The Taoism created by Zhang Ling in his veneration to Laozi, as a local religion, keeps surviving and stretching long and unbroken. Until the times of Wei and Jin, Wang Bi and He Yan took the approach of explaining Confucian classics with theories of Laozi and Zhuang Zi, thereby assimilating and giving play to the Taoist’s idea of Natural and Inaction, integrating the Confucian ethical code with the nature. Guo Xiang created new approach in the Chinese Ideological history - Metaphysics by way of annotating the Book of Zhuang Zi. The Annotation of the Book of Laozi by Wang Bi exerts enormous influence on the later generations. After Buddhism made inroad into China, some scholars resorted to explaining and commenting Buddhism with Taoist’s concept to make the dissemination of Buddhism easier. The disciples of Kumàrajāva who was a famous Buddhist sutra translator were all versed in theories of Laozi and Zhuang Zi. In accordance with the record contained in the third volume of Dao Xuan’s Collection of Debate between Buddhism and Taoism, it is quoted to the effect that on his return from the trip of India and was given interview by Emperor Taizong in the twenty first year of Zhenguan Reign of the Tang dynasty (647 CE), Li Yibiao was debriefed, reporting that he had given introduction of The Book of Laozi to King Kumàra in the State of Kàmaråpa (west region in Assam State, India at present) in ancient India.
v1.c7.s9.t1.15.3
The Emperor then gave edict to Monk Xuanzang to organise the translation of Lao Zi’s cannon into Sanskrit together with over 30 experts like Taoist priest Cai Huang and Chengying. They read through the text five times, discussed elusive key points, carefully researched into the Book of Lao Zi, then Xuanzang began to translate Lao Zi’s classic only after thoroughly comprehending the delicate and hidden connotations. About this grand translation event, real or just a legend, the answers given by different historical records are differed, but all records establish the truthfulness of Emperor Taizong’s wish to the Book of Lao Zi translated in Sanskrit by Monk Xuanzang in order to have academic exchange with India. In the Song Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, the Neo-Confucianism rejected both Buddhism and Taoism, but did not rejected intake of some elements from Taoism. For example, Tai Ji Theory by Zhou Dunyi is the fruit of partial assimilation of the thoughts from Taoist Chen Po from Mt Huashan. Philosophy of Cosmic System Mathematics by Shao Yong is the hybrid of Confucianism and Taoism. That is why Cheng Hao described Shao Yong’s theories as the way of inner sageliness and outer kingliness, meaning both are sound in theory and practice.
v1.c7.s9.t1.16
In allusion to the dissemination of Buddhism in China, in the end period of the Eastern Han Dynasty, there had already existed the anecdote or legend about Lao Zi’s creation of Buddhism in India and enlightening the local habitants after he had left Hangu Pass. To the times of Emperor Hui of the Jin Dynasty, there was a debate between Wang Fu, libationer of Tianshi Daoism, and Shramana Po Yuan about the supremacy of two religions, from then on Wang Fu wrote the book about Lao Zi’s creation of religion in alien land with the aim to belittle Shakyamuni. That book was expanded with additional 10 volumes by the posterities that were used by the Taoists of various generations to elevate Taoism and belittle or discriminate against Buddhism, and, was of cause bitterly opposed by the Buddhists. In the times of Emperors Xianzhong and Shizu in Yuan Dynasty, there was a great debate on true and false of the book of Lao Zi, *Creation of Buddhism in Alien Land*, followed by imperial court ban of the Taoism books. And this book was on the top of the list of the books to be burned. And hence this book disappeared from history forever. In the exchange between China and the West over contemporary era, Lao Zi’s teaching has spread to European and Asiatic regions, arousing interests of many scholars, thus furthering the development of oriental and occidental philosophies.
v1.c7.s9.t1.17
(Jiang Julang)