Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c10.s1.t6: Indian Mythology

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c10.s1.t6

Language: English

Indian Mythology

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Like other nations in the world, India too developed its mythology along with the birth of its primitive religious belief. People observed and contemplated on natural phenomena themselves, the mystery of which drove them to cultivate a concept of gods and from this course mythology gradually evolved. The Indian mythology grew together with its religion and had been enriched and systematised. In the epic period, Hindu idols changed significantly; Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva were the most prominent and some historical legends evolved into new myths and were attributed to these three Gods. In the *Puranas*, Vishnu and Shiva were two distinctive sects of Hinduism. Religious maturity and schism gave rise to systematic and rigorous myths which were attached to different sects.

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Fusion of Shiva and Vishnu; Vishnu on the left and Shiva on the right

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*Indra, king of Gods*

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The appearance of a new religion led to that of a new system of mythology. With the birth of Buddhism and Jainism, new myths arose in India and assimilated some Hindu myths. Together, the myths of these three religions constitute the entire ancient Indian mythology.

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*Agni, God of Fire*

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Myths acquire vitality by virtue of the religion to which they are attached and within which they are disseminated and continued. So, the truth whether a mythology is vigorous or not depends on the vigour of its religion. Growing Hinduism gave rise to vigorous Hindu myths and pious followers acted as living carriers to pass down these myths from generation to generation or transplant them to other areas, such as dancing, painting, sculpture and everyday life. In India, Buddhism disappeared in the early 13th century and myths associated with it were no longer told, and not revived until the return of Buddhism in modern times. Jain mythology, like Jainism, has been lukewarm for long.

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Hindu Mythology

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In the system of Indian mythology, Hindu myths are richer, more complicated and occupy a dominant position. The formation of Hindu mythology, on the whole, can be divided into two periods which are the Vedic Period and the Period of Mahajanapadas. Actually, the so-called Hindu myths mainly come from three kinds of literature ie the *Vedas*, the two Hindu epics and the *Puranas*.

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Vedic Mythology

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The Vedic period extended from 1500-600 BCE and Vedic mythology refers to myths produced during this period. Many deities were mentioned in *Vedas* such as the Sun, Moon, Stars, dawn, darkness, mountains and rivers, cloud and thunders, forests and trees etc and chief deities include Indra (the king of gods), Agni (god of fire), Surya (god of the Sun), Varuna (god of the water), Vayu (god of wind), Ashvins (divine twin horsemen) and Yama (god of death).

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The *Rigveda* contains about 250 hymns in praise of Indra, king of gods. He is bearded, wields the vajra, uses a bow, and can change his form and ride and fight in his cart followed by a large retinue. He kills huge demons, cuts through mountains and brings forth water. He occupies many castles, kills many enemies and recovers the cattle from the hands of the enemies several times. He is divine in being able to summon wind, rain and thunder and is human in fighting bravely and liking to eat and drink, 'soma' in particular. Indra is the personification of the natural forces as well as an ideal and deified chief of the nomadic Aryan tribes. About 200 hymns in the *Rigveda* dedicated to the god of fire Agni, who is among the supreme deities and has some characteristics of fire. He brings light and eliminates illness and calamity. The deification of fire reflects the fire use and worshipping of ancient Indians. It also includes hymns on Surya, saying that he rides across the sky in a chariot and every day awakens people to work, he sweeps away darkness like a piece of animal hide, and gives off light for Gods and humans, and is like a red bird as well as a red gem.

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He can remove pains and ills and bring longevity. As a god of the water, a lord of rivers and rain and a keeper of law and order, Varuna is responsible for punishing those that break the order. He has a snare and many spies which are often sent to watch every movement of men. Vayu, the god of wind, can blow around and cause dust. He can enter the human body to remove illness and bring longevity. Ashvins are often mentioned in the *Rigveda* and they are twin brothers, young, handsome, smart and strong and can cure illness and save life. Yama is a god of death and a keeper of law. After death, every man has to see him and he has two dogs guarding the road to his abode.

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In the Vedic period, people often contemplated and tried to answer the question that how the world and human life were created and as a result, creation myths were produced. The *Rigveda*, one of the oldest sacred texts, has several kinds of creation myths. One kind was based on fertility cult. For instance, the hymns *Visvakarman* (10.82), *Ka* (10.121) and *Creation* (10.129) allude to sexual intercourse between man and woman, indicating that primitive people worshipped genitals as the source of life and thought the world, like man and

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Vishnu, surrounded by his 10 incarnations, (Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki)

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sky from his head, the Earth and regions from his feet. These together formed the entire world. This explained the formation of the Sun, the Moon and other natural phenomena as well as human beings and from this sprouted the caste - a distinctive system in ancient India.

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Puranic Mythology

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In 6ᵗʰ century BCE, India went into the period of Mahajanapadas and there formed 16 major kingdoms and republics in the northern India. From then on until the 4ᵗʰ or 5ᵗʰ century CE, a number of sacred texts appeared in India and among them, the *Ramayana* and the *Mahabharata* are the most influential and widespread. In many versions, which vary more or less from each other, these two epics are masterpieces of Indian culture and collections of rich and polished ancient Indian myths. An epic could not be compiled by a single man and at a single time and place, and so, tales in it often vary from and even contradict with each other. The compilation of these two epics and the appearance of the *Puranas*

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Statue of Brahma, god of creation in Hinduism

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woman's intercourse, was formed from “takedam” and a golden egg (garbha) and in the course of this water was very important.

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Another kind suggested that the world was created from limbs of a supernatural being. According to Hymn Purusa of the *Rigveda* (10.90), Purusa has 1,000 head, 1,000 eyes and 1,000 feet and is all that has been and all that is to be, and the lord of immortality. His mouth turned into the Brahman, his two arms the Kshatriya, his thighs the Vaisya and his feet the Sudra. The Moon was gendered from his breast, the Sun from his eyes, Indra and Agni from his mouth, and Vayu from his breath. The air was generated from his navel, the eventually contributed to the establishment of a complete system of Hindu mythology.

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Birth of Brahmā, an Indian miniature painting

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*Brahma riding the swan*

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In the Hindu epics and *Puranas*, achievements of three chief devas stood out. Brahma, a god of creation, is said to be born from a golden egg (garbha) which he turned into halves with the power of will, with one half as Heaven and the other half as Earth. He then proceeded to create five elements (earth, water, wind, fire and empty) and all things in the world. In the Hindu epics, he was also called as “Creator” or “progenitor of all human beings”. His skin is red and he has four heads, eight hands holding four *Vedas*, a sceptre, a jug containing the water of the Ganges River, a spoon used in sacrifice, lotus, prayer beads, a bow etc. He often sits on a lotus throne or rides a swan or a cart carried by seven swans. Though he is one of the triad and frequently appears in various texts, his feat is nothing unusual and he is often pushed aside by the other two chief devas. Vishnu is a guardian deva and also known as Narayana ie all-pervading. He has a deep-blue body, wears a yellow robe and has four arms holding a discus, a conch, a mace and a lotus flower. He rides on Garuda and his wife is Lakshmi. In the epic *Mahabharata*, Vishnu is described as lord of the world, and when the end of the world approaches he swallows it, and then rests on the back of a huge snake. When he wakes up, he again has a desire to re-create the world. So from his navel springs a lotus from which emerges Brahma to create the world as ordered by Vishnu. His most amazing tales are about his saving the world in various avatars. According to some *Puranas*, he has done this 24 times while some

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*Buddha, National Museum, New Delhi, India*

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say it is 10. He turns into a fish and saves mankind and various species from a great flood. He also turns into a dwarf to protect celestial and human realms from being occupied by Asuras. Besides, he saves the world many times in the avatar of a turtle, boar, lion etc. On tales of his avatars, the most revered are Rama and Krishna. The tales about Rama are mostly included in *Ramayana*, while tales about Krishna can be found in *Mahabharata*, *Bhagavata Purana* and *Vishnu Purana*. Shiva, one who creates and destroys the world, began to be worshipped as early as in the time of the Ganges civilisation. In the *Vedas*, he does not have a high status and is called Rudra. He combines functionally the characteristics of Aryan deities with those of indigenous Indian ones. He is a god of fertility, and Indians worshipped Linga - his symbol, which is a round-head pillar and looks like the male genital organ and represents Shiva’s capacity of infinite reproduction and creation. He is also the lord of dance, and his dance can destroy the world. He once danced to conquer many hostile ascetics. He is also a god of ascetic practice, and lives on the Mount Kailash (within Putian County, Tibet) down the ages. His followers consider him as the supreme god of the world, and other two chief devas are under his control and sometimes have to obey his commands. Shiva is powerful and violent, while sometimes he is very kind and benevolent as well. His skin is deep blue, with three eyes, sometimes four or five heads, four hands holding a trident, with a bow and arrows on the back, a small drum to the waist, a crescent on the head as an ornament, and a snake surrounding the neck. From his hair flows the Ganges, which is a celestial river and falls down from the heaven and sometimes may destroy the earth. So, he receives the water with the head at first and then causes it flow down. Shiva has a blue throat, since he drank the poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to free other devas from pains. He is said to have been abstinent, and Kama, the god of love, attempts to seduce him, but is burned to ashes by his third eye. However, Shiva falls in love with Parvati, and they have two sons, one is Kumara (also called as Skanda), and the other is Ganesa. Tales of Shiva and members of his family can be found in the *Shiva Purana* and the epics and other *Puranas*.

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*Birth of Buddha, Song period mural, Cave 75, Mogao grottoes, Dunhaung, Gansu Province, China*

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Jain Tirthankara Mahavira

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‘Diagram of the Universe’ in Jainism

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For Hindus, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva form a triad and represent the Creator, Preserver and the Destroyer respectively. In Hindu mythology, some chief deities in Vedic myths retire to a minor position, such as Indra, Varuna, Agni and Vayu who cannot be compared with the triad, though they are still powerful and frequently appear. However, they often suffer from setbacks and have to seek the assistance of the triad. They are often punished by the triad if they make any mistake.

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Buddhist Mythology

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Founded during the period of Mahajanapadas, Buddhism absorbed nutrition from ancient Vedic texts, inherited a part of their thoughts and legends and transformed and utilised them to produce its own mythology. Buddhist mythology consists of two parts, one is tales of the Buddha’s life and the other is derived from Vedic and epic texts as well as folklore and centres around the Buddha with a variety of deities. The Buddha is presented as a form in the past, in the future, in three worlds and in three lives, and there are guardian devas such as Indra, Brahma, Mahesvara, four great kings, Aditya, Candra, Prithvi, Varuna, Skanda, Marichi, Yamaraja, Lakshmi, Sarasvati, Hariti and Guhyapada vajrah, and besides, there are also eight types of minor deities, including Naga, Yaksa, Gandharva, Asura, Garuda, Kimnara and Mahoraga. Buddhism also presents a three-dimensional view of the universe, with the heaven, the earth and the underworld each being divided into several layers, and such an imagination is splendid and amazing.

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Of Buddhist mythology, tales about the Buddha’s life are the most representative. According to Theravada texts, Kapilavastu was a kingdom located in the south of Himalayas, the king wass Suddhodana and his queen Mayadevi. One day, Mayadevi dreamed of a white elephant entering into her belly from the right flank. Then she gave birth to a prince from the right flank under a sal tree in Lumbini Park. Nanda and Upananda came in due time and spat pure water to bathe the prince and Indra and Brahma came to say congratulations. The baby prince stood up and marched seven steps forward with one hand to the sky and the other to the earth, saying as loudly as a lion roars, “Heaven and Earth, I am the supreme! After this body, no more rebirth.” The prince grew up and at the age of 29, he left the royal palace one night and from thence was called Sakyamuni. After six years of ascetic practice, he was still not enlightened. Once morning, he came to meditate under a banyan and was offered a bowl of milk by a maiden named Sujata. After finishing it, the prince was refreshed and avowed to achieve enlightenment the same day. He went to a Pippala and a grass seller gave him some grass, which turned into a 20-cubit-high seat of vajra. The prince sat toward the east and began to meditate. All the devas came to guard him and the demons to interfered him with threats and temptations. The demons failed and the prince was unmoved, and became a Buddha. At this time, the earth shook, trees came into flower and showers of petals fell. Then he returned to his country and converted his brother Nanda and Nanda’s son Rahula into sangha. What he sought is the ultimate liberation rather than magic power, which he attained naturally. He defeated the evil dragon for many times, moved the mad elephant and escaped many assassinations attempted by his enemies. At the age of 80, he died in Hain Salavana in Kusinagara, and his body cannot be burnt until Mahakasyapa led 500 disciples to prostrate themselves and pray. Like his birth, his death is mysterious as well. In this way, a figure of mythology was produced.

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**Jain Mythology** Similar to Buddhism, Jainism also has a part of myths which interpreted the world and the life. Most of them were taken from ancient myths and legends, some from Vedic and epic texts, and some directly from folklore but with an inferior plot. The tales of Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, 23 Tirthankaras and 12 Cakravartis constitute the main body of Jain mythology.

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As for tales prior to Mahavira, Jain texts point out: time is infinite and shapeless, and rotates ceaselessly one cycle after another, and each cycle is equal to 10¹⁴x20 years and can be divided into 12 epochs. The first six epochs constitute the ascending and latter six the descending circle. The world is without bound and at its centre is the middle world (Madhya Loka). Below this are seven hells and above that are 16 heavens and 14 realms. Humans, animals, ghosts and some devas live in the middle world. At the apex of the universe is Siddhasila, the realms of the liberated souls. Men now are in the descending circle, in the first three epochs of which, people were in a state of happiness and entirely relied on nature for living. During this time, people could get what they need by just standing under the kalpa tree. There was no culture, no law, no rules and the like, and people lived freely and without struggle and war. At the end of the third epoch, people awoke from sound sleep and began to organise themselves into a number of clans and tribes. Some eminent chiefs were called 'kings' and they were also called Manu (lord of mankind). By the end of the third epoch there were 14 Manus, and in the fourth epoch, 63 major figures arose, including 24 Tirthankaras.

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A great number of Jain myths are about Mahavira’s life whose birth was miraculous. About 2,500 years ago in a kingdom that is now Bihar, the queen had a strange dream. She saw a series of propitious things including Lakshmi, full moon, sun, male lion, elephant, bull, golden cart, sacrificial fire, garland, throne and the like in her dream. Days later, she gave birth to Prince Mahavira, who upon birth appeared very unusual, healthy and handsome, and never needed to be taught, since he had mastered all knowledge in a previous life.

Cites (1)

Sahasraśīrṣa — Sanskrit