Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c13.s1: Silk Road
Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c13.s1
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Silk Road
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The Silk Road is an overland trade channel from ancient times leading from China to South Asia, West Asia, Europe and North Africa via Central Asia. Due to the fact that a large number of Chinese silk and silk fabrics were transported westward along this channel, it acquired the name "the Silk Road".
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The term “Silk Road” was first put forward by a German geographer, Ferdinand von Richthofen, in his book *China* published in 1877. It was called *Seidenstrassen* in German and originally referred to the route of the silk trade between China and Transoxiana and India, in the Western and Eastern Han dynasties. German historian Hermann extended the Silk Road to the western end of the Mediterranean and Asia Minor. He settled the basic configuration of the Silk Road through further investigation into the literary records, in his book *The Ancient Silk Road between China and Syria* (Berlin, 1910). At the same time, at the end of the 19th century and early 20th century, some foreign explorers discovered a large number of remains and relics of ancient China and the western regions related to trade and cultural exchanges in northwestern China. The history and archaeology of the Silk Road soon became an important topic of academic research among scholars around the world. Many scholarly works were written and theories formulated which broadened the scope of study of the Silk Road.
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**Rise and fall of the Silk Road:** Although the concept of the Silk Road was popularised very late, this trade channel had already existed for a long time. In the ancient world, China was the first country to produce silk based on planting mulberry trees and the rearing of silkworms. The Archaeological materials found in recent years have confirmed that silk production had developed to a very high level in China during the period of the Shang Dynasty in the second millennium BCE. At that time, a small amount of Chinese silks was being transported to Central Asia and India via peoples inhabiting the region of today’s Northwest China.
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At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, the Hexi Corridor was successively occupied by the Wushun, Yuezhi and Xiongnu peoples and the small oasis states in the western regions were also controlled by the Xiongnu. Therefore, communication was difficult between the Han empire and the western regions. In the second year of Jianyuan (139 BC), the Han Emperor Wu sent envoy Zhang Qian to Dayuezhi (now midwest Afghanistan) thereby facilitating passage along the Silk Road which was called “Zaokong” in Chinese. After the second year of Yuanguang (133 BC), Emperor Wu of sent his army to attack the Xiongnu repeatedly, thus consolidating the northwest frontier of the empire. He set up four prefectures including Jiuquan, Wuwei, Zhangye and Dunhuang which cut the connection between the Xiongnu and the Qiang people (in today’s Sichuan-Tibet region) and thereby linked the Han empire with the western regions. Many beacon towers and fortresses were built from Dunhuang to Yanze (Lop Nor, Xinjiang today) to forestall any invasion by the Xiongnu. In 119 BCE, Zhang Qian was sent to the western regions again and his subordinates were sent to Dayuan (Ferghana today), Kangju (south of present-day Kazakhstan), Dayuezhi, Tokhgra (northern part of today’s Afghanistan), Parthia (present-day Iran), Sindu (present-day India), the kingdom of Khotan (Hotan today), and Yumi (east of Yutian). Thus, the passage from the Han empire to the western regions was ensured. In 77 BC, the army of the Han dynasty conquered the Kingdom of Loulan and moved its capital to Yuni (near Ruoqiang, present-day Xinjiang). In 60 BC, the Han dynasty set up the Western Region Frontier Commandery in order to protect the route to the west. After Zhang Qian was sent to the western regions and forged an alliance with Wusun, there was relatively free passage along this route with the constant movement of envoys and merchants.
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Chinese Map of the Central Asian/ Western Kingdom
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Since a large amount of silk and silk fabrics were transported to the west constantly, the ancient Romans called China “Seres” meaning “country of silk” in Latin. At the same time, the “exotic foreign treasures” of the western regions were introduced into China. From the 1ˢᵗ century CE, due to political volatility, contacts between the western regions and the Han dynasty were temporarily interrupted many times, but the trade still continued. During the period of Ban Chao’s governorship of the western regions, he sent Gan Ying to Daqin (Roman Empire) and Ditiaozhi (present-day Iraq). His journey ended on reaching the sea, which was the farthest appoint west along the Silk Road reached by the Chinese officials.
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In the Wei and Jin dynasties (about 3rd-4th century), trade between east and west continued. Dunhuang, a vital point on the Silk Road, was one of the gathering places of the Hu merchants and business letters of Hu merchants of Sogdiana in Central Asia have also been found here. Although in the 5ᵗʰ-6ᵗʰ centuries, China was divided among the Northern and Southern dynasties, east-west commercial transactions along the Silk Road continued to thrive. Shortly after the founding of the Northern Wei dynasty, a Chinese envoy was sent to the western regions. Envoys and merchants from Central Asian states often gathered in Pingcheng (the capital of the early Northern Wei Dynasty, now northeast of Datong, Shanxi). After moving their capital to Luoyang, it became a more important meeting place of merchants from all countries. It was said that “from the west of the Pamirs to Daqin, merchants from thousands of places
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Silk Road, Yumen Pass ruins, Dunhuang west, Gansu
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gather here together every day for business” and that “all rare commodities in the world could be found here”. There were many Hu merchants in the capital of the Northern Qi Dynasty.
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During the Sui period (589-618 CE), Emperor Yang sent an assistant minister Pei Ju to Zhangye to encourage merchants from the west to trade. The contemporary description — “The constant business of Hu merchants also makes counties around bustle” — could be read as proof of the prosperity of the Silk Road at that time. A large number of Hu merchants came to Chang’an, Luoyang and other major cities of the Tang dynasty, making them virtually international cities of that time.
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Batik cloth (Eastern Han Dynasty) excavated from the no. 1 ruins of Xinjiang, Minfeng Niya
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From the late 9th century to the 11th century, due to the shift of China’s political, economic and cultural centre to the southeast coastal areas and the rise of Arab world, maritime intercourse between the East and West gradually became more important. At the same time, political turbulence in northwestern China affected the safety of the Silk Road and so the importance of this overland channel was reduced. During the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols controlled China as well as many areas in Central Asia and West Asia. This opened up east-west communication along the overland route and many European envoys, missionaries and merchants such as Marco Polo, came to China along this route. Therefore, the Silk Road recovered its prosperity at that time.
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After the early Ming dynasty, the imperial court adopted a closed door policy. Although the road from Jiayu Pass to Central Asia via Kumul was not cut, the overland Silk Road as an east-west route became far less important than the sea route.
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**The configuration of the Silk Road:** The basic route of the Silk Road was determined in the period of the Western and Eastern Han Dynasties. It started from Chang’an and passed through Longban via four counties of the Hexi Corridor: Wuwei, Zhang Ye, Jiuquan and Dunhuang. It then went through the Yumen Pass or Yang Pass and Bailongdui to Loulan. Loulan was located in the northwest of Yanze (present-day Puchanghai, Lop Nor). In the western regions, there were two roads, with Loulan as the meeting point. The northern road was from Loulan to Quli (Korla), Wulei and Luntai along the Konqi River and on to Shule (present-day Kashgar) via Qiuci (Kuqa) and Gumo (Aksu). The southern route went from Yuni in Shanshan along the Qarqan River in the southwest via Qiemo, Yumi, Khotan, Pishan and Shache to Shule. Due to the southward shift of the Gobi Desert over more than 1,000 years, the eastern part of the southern road was subject to desertification. The ancient cities such as Yixun and Yuni were covered by the desert so that the road had to shift further south. In 73 CE, Emperor Ming of the Han dynasty attacked the Xiongnu and took Yiwulu (present-day Kumul, Xinjiang). They sent military officers for garrison and reclamation work to prevent the Northern Xiongnu from invading the western region. The Han and the Northern Xiongnu fought many battles for Yiwu but the Northern Xiongnu was finally forced to move west and the Han government was able to open up the new north road. The new north road started from Dunhuang and passed through Yiwu to the north then through Liuzhong, Gaochang, Jiaohe in Cheshiqianbu (all in the Turpan Depression today), Mount Tianshan and Yanqi to Qiuci and then along the earlier mentioned northern road to reach Shule (Kashgar). This new north road was called “middle road” in the *Brief History of the Wei*.
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*Tri-coloured guzzled pottery of the Tang Dynasty: Silk Road Camel Business figurines*
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Besides the main lines of the Silk Road mentioned above, there were a lot of branches. With the changes over time and the development of political and religious conditions in the regions through which they passed, the importance of the various routes changed and new roads were constantly being opened up. In recent years, some scholars have broadened the concept of the Silk Road. They call the road passing through the oasis states through the desert as the Oasis Road. The route passing through the nomadic areas in northern China is called the “Prairie Road” and the southernmost route has been termed the “Maritime Silk Road” or “South China Sea Road”. Some scholars also emphasise the importance of a particular commodity or religion so they refer to various roads such as the “Fur Road”, “Jade Road”, “Jewelry Road”, “Perfume Road”, “Ceramic Road”, “Buddhist Road” etc. Although these concepts help to throw light on the broader nature of east-west traffic, they cannot fully convey the character of the original Silk Road.
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**Significance of the Silk Road** The Silk Road is not only an important channel of East-West trade but also a major channel of political and cultural exchanges between China and other countries in Asia and Europe. From regions to the West, music, dance, painting, sculpture, architecture and other arts, astronomy, calendar, medicine and other scientific and technical knowledge, along with Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Nestorianism, Islam and other religions were successively introduced into China through this road, producing a great impact on China. Textile technology, papermaking, printing, gunpowder, compass, porcelain making and other technologies, as well as painting and other artistic techniques along with Confucian and Daoist thought were also conveyed from China to regions further west along this road. The Silk Road thus still embodies peaceful and mutually beneficial exchange between the East and West.
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Lanzhou, Gansu, Silk Road Sculptures
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(*Sun Yutang*, *Yang Jianxin* & *Rong Xinjiang*)