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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c13.s4: B. Personalities and People

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c13.s4

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English

Contents

B. Personalities and People

Zhang Qian

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Zhang Qian (birth unknown ~ 114 BCE) was a Chinese diplomat of the Western Han Dynasty and pioneer of the Silk Road. When Emperor Wu planned to forge an alliance with the Da Rouzhi (also known as Yuezhi) to fight against the Huns (Xiongnu), he appointed Zhang Qian as his envoy. Zhang Qian left west Gansu in 139 BCE and was captured when passing through the territory of the Huns. He escaped from the Huns 10 years later and went west to Dayuan, passed Qangly and Darouzhi, and finally arrived in Balkh where he stayed for more than a year. In 126 BCE, civil strife broke out among the Huns and Zhang Qian seized this opportunity to flee back to Han Empire. He gave a detailed report of the conditions in the western regions to Emperor Wu. What Zhang Qian said was included in the famous historical work, the *Shi Ji*, the *Collected Biographies of Dayuan* and the *History of the Han Dynasty - Biography of Zhang Qian*. Zhang Qian was quoted as saying: “I saw bamboo poles made in the Qionglai Mountains and cloth made in Sichuan. I asked a Bactrian how they got these goods and he answered that Bactrian merchants purchased them in Sindhu (India).” He also got to know that Sindhu was 'thousands of miles to the southeast of Balkh. It follows the practice of fixed settlement just like the Bactrians. But its terrain is low and it is humid and hot in summer. Its people fight on elephants. And the country is close to the Ganges river'. From that time onwards, the emperor and his ministers in Han Dynasty knew that there was a country called Sindhu (India) to the southwest of China. It could also be further inferred that Sindhu and Sichuan were connected by trade routes since there were products made in Sichuan (the present Sichuan Basin) in Sindhu and Sindhu was much closer to Sichuan than to Chang'an. Zhang Qian even advised Emperor Wu to build a southwestern road. But this project was impeded due to certain reasons and the road was not opened. He made a great contribution since he, in a sense, opened up the Silk Road which connected central China to the Western Regions and also brought preliminary knowledge about India to the people of Han China.

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Statue of Zhang Qian, located in Fangcheng, Henan, China

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Zhang Qian’s journey to the West Mural, Han Wudi riding on the horse, Zhangqian kneeling down, Cave No.323, Mogao Cave, Dunhuang, China

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(*Ge Weijun*)

Wang Dayuan

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Wang Dayuan (1311-1350), a civil mariner in the Yuan period, travelled to West Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and other regions. His book *Dao Yi Zhi Lue* contains interesting descriptions of India’s geography and customs.

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Wang Dayuan, from Nanchang, Jiangxi, was intelligent and studious from an early age and very fond of travel. After moving to Quanzhou, he noticed the exotic customs of the many foreign merchants there. Fascinated by them, he decided to travel. In 1330, he started out from Quanzhou by sea, and voyaged to present-day Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, West Asia, North Africa and other countries and regions returning between the summer and autumn of 1334. In 1337, he sailed out from Quanzhou again and travelled through places such as the islands in the southern seas (Southeast Asia), Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf and Red Sea. It is also claimed that he travelled through the Mediterranean and Australia as well while returning in 1339. After that, he began to sort out his notes of his overseas experiences at the request of local officials in Quanzhou and finally finished the book, *Dao Yi Zhi Lue*. According to the records in the authoritative *Annotated Catalogue of the Complete Imperial Library*, “Wang Dayuan’s book was written by himself based on his personal experiences rather than empty talk… And its records of mountains and rivers and of the territory of different countries are the most detailed”.

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With detailed and accurate information, the book is of great importance as a reference for the study of exchanges between the East and West during the Yuan Dynasty and for the history and geography of the Asian and African regions. Books including *Ling Wai Dai Da* of Zhou Qufei and *Zhu Fan Zhi* of Zhao Rushi in the Song period before it, and *Yingya Shenglan* of Ma Huan and *Xingcha Shenglan* of Fei Xin in the Ming period after it, all had a major impact on the history and geography texts of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. In the middle of the 19ᵗʰ century, Western scholars too began to pay attention to this book and translated it into many languages. It was widely acknowledged that it has made an important contribution to global historical and geographical research.

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The records about India are truthful and accurate. In the book, the description about Pengjiala (Bengal) is “around tall mountains and dense forests, people gather and live here, cultivating for a living and so there is no wild desert land, but only beautiful farmland. There are three harvests every year and all things are cheap... It has a tropical climate and the customs are simple. Men and women wrap their heads with muslin and wear long robes. The official tax is two-tenths of their incomes”. And the description about Fangbai (now in the region of Mumbai) is that “it is situated among gorges and rocks, having bridges to cross over and no fields around. The land is suitable for planting wheat. The weather is warm and customs are simple. People’s faces are long, eyes white and appearance black. They braid their hair like rope and wear long cotton robes. They make salt by distilling sea water and turn cobblestone into charcoal for cooking... areca-nut is the king of fruits”. Wang Dayuan introduced early the concept of the East and West and this concept has been used by later generations. His descriptions of mountains, scenery, and the architecture, clothes, etc., of other lands are of great reference value for the study of different cultures.

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Wang Dayuan

Yang Dazhao (Atchew)

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Atchew (or Achi), whose Chinese name was Yang Dazhao, is considered to be the founder of the Chinese community in India. Atchew arrived in Calcutta (Kolkata) in the late 1770s. He is said to have petitioned the then British Governor-General in India, Warren Hastings, for some land to grow sugarcane. According to the popular version of this episode, Hastings is believed to have granted him as much land as he could cover on horseback in a single day. Atchew’s estate was located about 15 km south of Calcutta on the banks of the Hugli River. With the help of some Chinese labourers he brought with him, Atchew grew sugarcane, processed sugar and also apparently distilled liquor. However, he did not live long after he started this venture. He died in 1783 and his estate was liquidated, although the village he founded is still known today as Achipur. Although by some accounts, Atchew was a sailor, it is more likely that he was a tea trader because he seemed to have enjoyed the patronage of the British authorities. This was seen when the British government in Bengal supported him in his dispute with another Chinese in Calcutta who he alleged was trying to entice his labourers away. The records of this dispute incidentally indicate that there were already other Chinese in Calcutta when Atchew was there. Nevertheless, the story of Atchew holds an important place in the historical memory of the Chinese community in Kolkata even today. Every year at the time of Chinese New Year, many members of the community gather at Achipur and pay their respects at the tomb of Atchew which still exists. He is referred respectfully by the Chinese community in Kolkata as Tai Pak Kung.

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(*Madhavi Thampi*)

Chinese Community in India

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The Chinese community in India has its origin in the colonial era maritime trade between China and India. Just as a number of Indian merchants flocked to China’s shores in search of profit, a number of Chinese sailors, traders, artisans and labourers arrived in Calcutta (Kolkata) and Bombay (Mumbai), then the two most flourishing ports on the east and west coast of India, respectively.

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Tradition holds that the first Chinese to settle in India was a person called Atchew or Achi (Yang Dazhao in Chinese) who around the year 1780 petitioned the then British Governor General in Calcutta, Warren Hastings, for land on which to grow sugarcane. His petition was granted, and he was allotted land about 15 km south of Calcutta, at a place which is still called Achipur in his memory.

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*Tangra Street, Kolkata*

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Using about a hundred Chinese labourers he brought with him, he grew sugarcane, produced sugar and distilled liquor as well. Records indicate, however, that there were already some Chinese living in Calcutta in his time. In the same period, Chinese also came to Bombay as sailors, peddlers, artisans and so on. They were particularly appreciated for their skills in carpentry and were employed as ship ‘fitters’ and for building and maintaining docks. Some were painters and craftsmen who came to India to cater to the demands of Bombay families who had acquired a taste for Chinese embroidery, paintings and textiles through their association with the China trade. Others brought with them silks and other items from China and went from door-to-door selling them. A third stream of Chinese who came to India were brought, many from Malaya, Singapore and other parts of Southeast Asia, to assist in the early stages of the development of the tea industry in Assam in northeastern India. Many of them inter-married with local women and set up small shops and enterprises. A moderate sized community of Assam Chinese grew, centred around a place called Makam in Assam.

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Until the middle of the 19th century, it appears that there were about 500 Chinese living in both Calcutta and Bombay. They were mainly males and many of them were sojourners who moved back and forth between China and India. However, from the early decades of the 20th century, the community in Calcutta grew steadily. Political disturbances,

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*Chinese community in Kolkata, Nanshun Hall*

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war and invasion back home as well as economic hardship brought many more Chinese to India in search of a livelihood. A significant development was that Chinese men in India began to bring over their wives and families, leading to the emergence of a more settled community. The community began to number several thousands, peaking at about 14,000 in the early 1950s. The only concentration of Chinese in India was in Calcutta, where the Chinese settled initially mainly in the area of the city, and then went on to establish themselves in the neighbourhood of Tangra.

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It is possible to identify some distinct regional groups among the Chinese in India. The earliest arrivals were mainly Cantonese who were particularly renowned for being excellent carpenters. Another group belong to the Hakka community. Many of them entered the tannery business and set up their businesses and residences in Tangra. They also became renowned shoemakers. A third smaller group originally came from Hubei province in central China. Many of them were traditionally ‘teeth-setters’ and over time evolved into modern dentists. Due to the nature of their work, they are more widely dispersed in different towns and cities of India than the other groups. In more recent decades, Chinese in India have moved into other occupations as well and are particularly known for their restaurants, beauty parlours, laundries and other ventures. Over decades, the Tangra locality of Calcutta evolved into India’s main ‘Chinatown’. The Chinese families have gone to great lengths to retain their language and other cultural characteristics as well as their community consciousness. They have given rise to several Chinese language newspapers, of which two remain in circulation: *The Chinese Journal of India* and *The Overseas Chinese Commerce of India*. Although in recent years, they have faced the problem of declining enrolment leading to full or partial closure, the community has given rise to several Chinese medium schools for their children including the Pei Mei, Mei Kong, Chen Kuo and the Sacred Heart schools. Several Chinese temples have also been built. Chinese New Year as well as other Chinese festivals are celebrated exuberantly and in a traditional manner by the community, particularly in Calcutta. It has become a custom among the Kolkata Chinese to pay an annual visit to Achipur, the place of the earliest settlement of their community on the occasion of Chinese New Year. There they pay their respects at the tomb of Atchew which still exists.

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The community suffered a severe setback as a result of the 1962 hostilities between India and China over the disputed border. Many Chinese families were uprooted from their homes, sent to internment camps and in some cases, deported. Those who were later allowed to return to their homes in India found it hard to pick up the threads of their lives. The legal and political status of many of them in India is not secure. This trauma has been movingly depicted in the writings of Kwai-yun Li who herself had grown up in Kolkata and of the Assamese writer Rita Chowdhury Rita Chowdhury whose novel *Makam* has been widely read in Assam. Rafeeq Elias’ short film *The Legend of Fat Mama* also evokes the mixed memories of this community.

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In recent years, the community faces the problem of dwindling numbers, particularly as younger members have immigrated to Canada, Australia, etc, in search of lucrative economic opportunities. However, even when they migrated, the Chinese Indians remain connected with each other and with their Indian links through blogs and websites such as *www.dhapa.com*, and through various associations and programmes that they organise for themselves from time to time.

Records of the Western Regions of the Great Tang

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*The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* or *Records on the Western Regions* for short is a book covering a comprehensive description of the geography, history, politics, economy, society, culture and other subjects of the regions in Central and South Asia in the early 7th century. Originally dictated by Xuanzang, it was recorded and sorted out by his disciple Bianji.

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**Origin of writing the book:** On January 24 of the 19th year of Zhenguan of Tang Dynasty (645 CE), Xuanzang ended his trip in India and returned to Chang'an with great honour with 657 Buddhist scriptures, several Buddha statues of various styles and 150 Buddha *śarīra* [relics]. In February, Xuanzang went to Luoyang and visited the Emperor Taizong of Tang Li Shimin (627–649 CE). This meeting was too short and was essentially a courtesy meeting. The next day, Emperor Taizong of Tang invited Xuanzang to the Hall of Yiluan and they spoke for a long time. The emperor asked him about the condition of the Western Regions. With the memory of his great trip still fresh in his mind, Xuanzang fluently answered all the queries. The Emperor admired Xuanzang very much, and advised him to write a book about the western countries. Finally, Xuanzang promised to do so. The following year, *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* dictated by Xuanzang, and recorded and sorted out by his disciple Bianji, with 12 volumes, was finished and presented to the emperor.

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**Basic contents:** *The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* narrates in accordance with the order of Xuanzang's westward route and returning route. Its contents are primarily based on Xuanzang's personal experience and some are hearsay.

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Volume I tells the situation of 34 countries from Agni (now Yanqi, Xinjiang) to Kapisa (now Afghanistan). Thirty-four countries include Kuqa and Aksu regions of present Xinjiang and ancient countries of present day Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in Central Asia. This route was Xuanzang's westward route through the north of Tarim Basin ie the north road of the Silk Road.

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Volume II first summarises the situation of India and then introduces the condition of the three countries. The contents of the summary include 17 points such as name (origin of India), territory, quantity (length unit), time (name and calculation method of the day and night, month, season, year), residence (living conditions of different social classes), clothes, food and drink, writings, education, Buddhism, family with same surname, (ie caste), military tactics (including arms and weapons), criminal law, ceremony, illness and death (including the treatment of illness and rituals after death) and taxes. This summary is scheduled from the point of the official entry of Xuanzang to India. It records the situation of three countries which are now in northwest India, ie present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan.

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Volume III records the situation of eight countries and they are all in northwest of India and includes present day regions of Pakistan and Kashmir. Volume IV records the situation of 15 countries which are mostly in northern India. Six countries in Volume V, four countries in Volume VI and five countries in Volume VII are basically in northern India and Nepal.

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Volume VIII and IX make the special introduction of Magadha (now Bihar, India). It is not only the major site connected with the life and numerous activities of and stories related to Gautam Buddha, but is also the location of Nalanda Monastery/University where Xuanzang studied for five years. Xuanzang was very familiar with this area.

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Volume X records the situation of 17 countries, located in present-day West Bengal, Assam in India

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'Records of the Western Regions of the Great Tang', a picture of the book

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and in Bangladesh as well as of Odisha in eastern India, Madhya Pradesh in central India, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in southern India and western regions in the south of the Indian Peninsula.

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Volume XI records the situation of 23 countries, besides Simhaladvipa [Sri Lanka] (which is based on hearsay), the rest includes countries in southwestern India, Western India and Northern India, and even Persia [Iran] - the book notes that this country did not belong to India but was a place that Xuanzang once visited.

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Volume XII records the situation of 22 countries. These countries are mainly the places that Xuanzang passed on the way home from Afghanistan to Xinjiang in China. Xuanzang's route to return home was different from the one that he took to go abroad. He did not go to Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan but took the route passing through south of Tarim Basin, Xinjiang.

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**Study of translation:** *The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* attracted the attention of the western academic circles in the middle of the 19th century. It was first translated by a French scholar M.S. Julien as *The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions*, and was published in Paris from 1857 to 1858 CE. Then two English volumes translated on the basis of the French translation appeared. One was by Samuel Beal, a British scholar, and was published in London in 1884 CE. The second was a two volume English translation by Thomas Watters published from 1904 to 1905 in London. These are more authoritative translations in the west. French, British, German and Russian scholars of Oriental Studies have, however, continued to study various aspects of the *Great Tang Records on the Western*

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Manuscripts from Dunhuang of 'Records of the Western Regions of the Great Tang'

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*Regions* and numerous monographs and articles have appeared during the last 100 years.

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Translation studies of Japanese scholars surpass western works and have a great influence on researches on China. In 1894, *Biographical Chronology of Master Xuanzang* published in *Buddhist History Review* was the earliest research paper in Japan. In 1910, Kyoto University produced a significant research paper entitled *Assessment and Correction of Great Tang Records on the Western Regions*. In 1912, Ono Kentoku's work, the *Commentary of Great Tang Records on the Western Regions*, published in Tokyo, was the earliest monograph in translation studies in Japan. From 1942 to 1943, Adachi Kiroku published two volumes of *Studies on Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* in Tokyo, drawing the attention of academia. The book became a milestone in the study of *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions*. In 1972, Japanese *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions*, translated and annotated by Mizutani Shinjo, was published in Tokyo, representing the new standard of the international research. In 1983, *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* retranslated by Nomura Yosho was published in Tokyo.

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Since the 20th century, Indian scholars began to pay attention to the *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* and conducted research. Historians like D. D. Kosambi, D. N. Jha, Ram Vilas Sharma, Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, R. C. Majumdar, Devahuti and Romila Thapar made significant use of the information of *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* in their own writings. Their researches also extended to further studies of various place names referred in the book.

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Since the 20th century, Chinese scholars drew lessons from foreign academic achievements and began to conduct study on the *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions*. Early researchers included Ding Qian, Chen Yinke, Chen Yuan, Feng Chengjun, Liang Qichao and Ouyang Jingwu. Before 1960, academic circles of Chinese mainland have published more than 20 books on various aspects of the *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions*.

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In 1982, *Three Ancient Versions of Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* edited by Xiang Da was published by Zhonghua Book Company. In 1984, Zhou Liankuan's *Historical and Geographical Study on Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* was also published by Zhonghua Book Company. In 1985, *Collation and Annotation of Great Tang Records on the Western Regions*, under the overall supervision of Ji Xianlin, and joint participation of Sun Yutang, Zhu Jieqin, Su Bai, Zhang Guangda, Yang Tingfu, Zhang Yi, Geng Shimin, Jiang Zhongxin, Zhao Shouyan, Wang Bangwei and others was produced by Zhonghua Book Company. This was the most significant highest level of the study of *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* in China. In addition, Rui Chuanming's *Introduction of Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* (1989) and *Complete Translation of Great Tang Records on the Western Regions (complete version)* (1995), Zhou Guolin's annotated translation of *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* (1999), Ji Xianlin et.al.’s the *Modern Translation of Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* (2008) and Fan Xiangyong’s *Collation Summary of Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* (2012) reflect not only the nature of research but also the direction of further studies of the *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions*.

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In February 1994, Chinese Xuanzang Research Center, under the leadership of Huang Xinchuan, was established. This brought together a large group of Chinese scholars doing research on Xuanzang and the *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* providing impetus to the creation of new knowledge in many related research area. The centre held many large international academic conferences and published many academic papers. These papers are available in published proceedings and many related monographs.

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**Evaluation:** In the *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions*, with remarkable memory, Xuanzang talks about the situation of 138 countries and regions including history, geography, religion, folk customs, languages and writings which provides extremely rich and valuable source of information for the study on the history, society and culture of ancient Central Asia and South Asia. It is precious, because its records are truthful. Except for some Buddhist stories which are from hearsay and cannot be verified, Xuanzang’s records on the whole are reliable and matches the evidences of historical development of modern society in India. Xuanzang’s books have been the most important guide for location of sites and most significant modern archaeological excavations of Buddhist sites in India, Nepal and Pakistan. Sites of Lumbini, Kapilavastu, Sarnath and Grdhrakuta or in Ajanta, Nalanda and Taxshila, owe much to detailed evidences provided in Xuanzang’s records. This has been noted by the most eminent Brtitish archaeologist in India Sir Alexander Cunningham and others. These excavations have proved the authenticity of Xuanzang’s records. Today, when people visit these holy lands of Buddhism, they can feel the presence of Xuanzang everywhere.

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Prabodh Chandra Bagchi at work

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Both past and present Indian and foreign historians thus praise Xuanzang’s *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* and unanimously agree that the book has been of great importance in rebuilding the history of India and Central Asia. Chinese scholar Ji Xianlin points out that “*Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* has already become the treasure of studying India’s history, philosophy, religion and literature, etc. We almost cannot find a book about ancient Indian studies without reference to *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions*.”

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(*Collation and Annotation of Great Tang Records on the Western Regions · Preface*)

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