Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahabharata: Upayana Parva c2: Preface
Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva c2
- Language
- English
Preface
c2.1
In the early days of my return from abroad I was singularly fortunate to come in direct contact of the ennobling and inspiring personality of the late Dr. K. P. Jayaswal. In his inspiring talks to us he always made it a point to enthuse us about ancient Indian geography without a knowledge of which Indian history in his opinion looked like an open-air drama in which members of the audience are required to do their own guessing about the scenic arrangements. I listened to him with rapt attention, but with my limited knowledge of Indian history and literature I could do little to solve the tangles of Indian historical geography. But there were others who took the cue, and among them foremost stands the name of Prof. Jaya Chandra Vidyalankar. His researches are embodied in an interesting book in Hindi entitled *Bhārat bhumi aur uske Nivāsi* (India and her peoples), in which he has focussed brilliantly the problems of Indian historical geography. It will not be an exaggeration to say that we have yet to see a book of this type in other Indian languages or as a matter of fact even in European languages. But I stayed where I was, my attention being riveted to problems of art and archaeology, and my professional duties as the curator of a museum left me little time to devote to other subjects.
c2.2
It was therefore a pleasant surprise when my friend Dr. Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala asked me to write an article on the chapters 47 and 48 of the Sabhā-parva which describe in detail the representatives of the tribes and republics who attended the Rājasūya ceremony of Yudhiṣṭhira and brought with them various products of their countries as gifts to the great king. I had misgivings about my ability to cope with such a difficult, although fascinating, subject. But I remembered Dr. Jayaswal's inspiring words and not minding my limitations enthusiastically took up the work. The deeper I went the greater my fascination grew, and a mere article I proposed to write for Dr. Radha Kumud Presentation Volume swelled into a small book which is before my readers.
c2.3
I purposely chose for my thesis the title of Upāyana-parva, although this name does not occur in any of the lists of the sub-parvans of the Mahābhārata. The subject-matter of the chapters 47-48 of the Sabhā-parva deals with the presents brought by various peoples, and I think the title Upāyana-parva appropriately expresses the idea of such gifts. For this liberty I crave the indulgence of scholars.
c2.4
A word about the geographical information in the Mahābhārata should not be out of place here. Before tackling the problems of epic geography utmost caution is necessary to be observed to avoid pitfalls and to gain a straight path in the bewildering forest of names about which we know so little. Mutilated readings found at every step lead us astray, and force us to seek names in the directions in which as the correct readings show they do not exist. Then there are contradictions and repetitions which by the nature of various strata in epic text are inevitable. In these circumstances every piece of evidence has to be weighed carefully before reaching any conclusion. External evidences from Buddhist and Jain sources are also sometimes of utmost value. I must here express my admiration for the critical edition of the Mahābhārata in which invariably, except in a very few cases, the choice of the readings by the editor has been correct.
c2.5
I, however, cannot claim that my identifications have always been correct. My modest claim, however, is that I have tried to probe into a difficult subject with my limited knowledge and I am certainly open to corrections which would be welcome. This is just a beginning; the subject of epic geography is far from exhausted. There yet awaits the geography of the Digvijaya-parva and the tangled mass of geographical information in the opening chapters of the Bhīṣma-parvan with hopelessly corrupt text. If everything goes on well I propose to go further into the subject.
c2.6
The critical study of the Upāyana-parva text, however, would have remained an empty dream if the editors of the critical edition of the Mahābhārata had not allowed me to consult the text of chapters 47 and 48, while the second part of the Sabhā-parvan was still in the Press and which, so far I am aware, has not yet been issued to the subscribers.* I am very grateful for all the assistance given to me in this connection by Dr. R. N. Dandekar. The authorities of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, also gave me an opportunity to express my views about the geography of the Upāyana-parva in a lecture at one of their annual functions. All this encouragement shows how greatly the cooperative spirit has grown among Indian scholars.
c2.7
In conclusion, I may point out that in spite of my vigilance minor inaccuracies in proof correction have remained in printing; for this I crave the indulgence of the scholars. I also offer my sincerest thanks to Dr. Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala and my young artist friend Ram Subhedar without whose cooperation I could not have successfully accomplished my task.
c2.8
Moti Chandra The *fraternities* of the Middle Ages, which were so numerous and so varied in their objects, were not all of the same origin. Some were religious, some social, some charitable, and some industrial. The religious guilds, or *gilds*, as they were often called, were associations of laymen for the purpose of performing religious duties, such as the maintenance of a chaplain, the celebration of masses, or the support of a hospital. The social guilds were formed for the purpose of mutual aid and good fellowship, and often included in their objects the relief of the poor, the sick, and the aged. The charitable guilds were established for the purpose of supporting hospitals, almshouses, and other institutions of mercy. The industrial guilds, or *craft guilds*, were associations of men engaged in the same trade or industry, and were formed for the purpose of regulating the trade, protecting the interests of the members, and maintaining the quality of their work.
c2.9
∗ This is now published (26-10-1945).—Moti Chandra.
c2.10
The craft guilds, which became so powerful in the later Middle Ages, were the successors of the earlier *collegia* of the Roman Empire. The *collegia* were associations of artisans and tradesmen, which were recognized by the state and had a legal existence. When the Roman Empire fell, these associations were largely destroyed, but the idea of association for mutual protection and the regulation of trade survived. In the early Middle Ages, the *gilds* began to reappear, and by the twelfth century they were firmly established in many of the cities of Europe.
c2.11
The craft guilds were organized on a democratic basis, and every member had a voice in the management of the guild's affairs. The officers were elected by the members, and the rules and regulations were made by the guild as a whole. The guilds had the power to fix prices, to regulate the hours of labor, and to determine the conditions of apprenticeship. They also had the power to punish members who violated the rules, and to expel those who were guilty of serious offenses. The guilds were thus a powerful force in the economic life of the Middle Ages, and they played an important part in the development of the modern industrial system.
c2.12
The decline of the craft guilds began in the sixteenth century, when the rise of the factory system and the growth of international trade made it difficult for the small, local guilds to compete with the larger and more efficient industrial organizations. The guilds were also weakened by the growth of the power of the state, which began to regulate trade and industry directly, and by the rise of the capitalist class, which sought to break the power of the guilds and to establish a system of free competition. By the end of the eighteenth century, the craft guilds had largely disappeared, but their influence lived on in the trade unions and other labor organizations of the modern world.
Linked texts (1)
- Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit