Vedic Metre in its Historical Development c5.s1: (ii) The Metres

Vedic Metre in its Historical Development c5.s1

Language: English

(ii) The Metres

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18. The units of Vedic metre are the ‘verse,’ the ‘stanza,’ and the ‘hymn.’

19. A verse consists most commonly either of eight syllables, when we distinguish it as a *dimeter* verse: or of eleven or twelve syllables, both of which varieties are included under the name *trimeter* verse.

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20. The number of syllables in a verse is not quite rigidly prescribed. Thus many dimeter verses contain seven syllables only: such verses, if they correspond in rhythm to an ordinary dimeter verse with loss of the last syllable, we term *catalectic* dimeter verses: if otherwise, the more general name *heptasyllabic* may be used.

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21. Similarly, trimeter verses which contain only ten syllables are not uncommon, such verses being usually equivalent to the verse of eleven syllables with the loss of a syllable before or after the caesura. These shorter verses may be termed *decasyllabic*.

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22. The most typical forms of the *stanza* are
(i) the *Anuṣṭubh*, which consists of four dimeter verses, and
(ii) the *Triṣṭubh*, which consists of four trimeter verses, each of eleven syllables.

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Four trimeter verses, each of twelve syllables, form a *Jagatī* stanza.

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23. Stanzas may contain more or fewer verses than four. Thus the Gāyatrī consists of three dimeter verses, the Paṅkti of five, the Mahāpaṅkti of six: whilst three Triṣṭubh verses form the metre known as Virāj, and two decasyllabic verses that known as Dvipadā Virāj.

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24. Stanzas may also consist of combinations of dimeter and trimeter verses, the latter being then usually of twelve syllables: all metres of this type we group as lyric metres. Lyric metres may also include verses of four syllables, and even of sixteen, but these are comparatively rare. The most important lyric metres are Uṣṇih (8. 8. 12 or 8. 8. 8. 4), Kakubh (8. 12. 8), Bṛhatī (8. 8. 12. 8), Satoṛhatī (12. 8. 12. 8), and Atyaṣṭi (12. 12. 8, 8. 8, 12. 8).

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25. The strophe (pragātha) is comparatively rare in the Rigveda, and consists of the combination of a Kakubh or Bṛhatī stanza with a Satoṛhatī stanza.

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26. A few hymns are composed of lyric stanzas of very various structures: these we call hymns in mixed lyric metres.

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27. The rare combination of verses of eight and eleven syllables in one stanza gives uneven lyric metre.

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28. A hymn may contain any number of stanzas, but usually it consists of not less than three or more than fifteen stanzas, generally uniform in character, except in the case of strophic and ‘mixed lyric’ hymns. It is also not uncommon for the last stanza of a hymn to contain one or even two additional verses.

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29. Where the number of stanzas in a hymn is very large, or the metre suddenly changes, it becomes probable that we have a composite hymn, that is, two or more hymns combined in the Saṃhitā text.

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The number of such composite hymns in the Rigveda is very large: but the hymns thus combined are usually homogeneous in character, and, if so, it is not necessary for the present purpose to separate them. If, however, the suspicion arises that the hymns thus combined differs in date or character from another to which it is joined, it becomes at once expedient to treat them as separate hymns.

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30. The definitions just given may be said to determine the external form of the different metres, and describe their more obvious characteristics. In accordance with them the metres may be grouped as belonging respectively to (a) the lyric, (b) the Anuṣṭubh, (c) the Triṣṭubh-Jagati families respectively. The lyric metres being practically unknown in later literature, may be presumed to belong to the more distinctively early parts of the Rigveda.

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31. We proceed to consider the internal form, or rhythm, of the different kinds of verse. The internal form is even less rigidly defined than the external, and is treated by native commentators as of comparatively small importance. There are few parts of the verse in which the poets do not consider themselves free at times to depart from the usual rhythms, so that it may perhaps be said that there are no ‘rules’ of rhythm in the Rigveda. On the other hand, there is no considerable part of the verse in which certain rhythms are not steadily favoured, and others avoided : everywhere there exist metrical preferences. In consequence of the greater elasticity of the internal form, its study is more difficult, but at the same time yields results of greater historical importance than the study of external form.

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32. In all metres in the Rigveda the quantities of the first and last syllables of each verse are indifferent, and (with some exceptions) each verse is independent in structure.

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33. In almost all metres a general iambic rhythm may be noticed, in the sense that the even syllables, namely the second, fourth, and so on, are more often long than short. Hence it has been supposed that Vedic metre has arisen historically from some combination of iambic ‘feet,’ such as is found in so many Greek metres. This supposition meets with many difficulties, and the use of the terms ‘dimeter’ and ‘trimeter’ verse in this book is not intended to imply acceptance of any such historical theory.

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34. In all metres the rhythm of the latter part of the verse is much more rigidly defined than that of the earlier part. Hence it has often, but incorrectly, been supposed that the earlier part of the verse is non-rhythmical.

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35. In the early part of the verse there is a general preference for long syllables, in the latter part of the verse for short syllables. These preferences modify considerably the general iambic rhythm prevailing in both parts.

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36. The dimeter verse falls naturally into two parts, or members, each consisting of four syllables. There is no caesura. We distinguish the two parts as the *opening* and the *cadence*.

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37. In the opening the first syllable is indifferent, according to § 32. The second and fourth syllables are preferably long (§ 33), but often short (§ 34). As to the third syllable, the principles laid down in §§ 33, 35 appear each to neutralise the other, so that the quantity of this syllable is indifferent. But if the second syllable is short, the third is almost invariably long. This fact seems to imply some principle of transfer of metrical weight, which may be described by the term *syncopation*, used in a somewhat similar way in modern music.

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38. In the cadence the fifth and seventh syllables are almost always short (§§ 33—35), but it is not unusual to find a short syllable in the sixth place also (§ 35).

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39. The following stanza, in which the division into parts or members is marked by upright lines, is therefore fairly typical of Vedic dimeter verse:—

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tuám valá|sya gómataḥ |
ápāvar ad|rivo bílam |
tuám devá | ábibhyuṣas |
tujyámānā|sa āviṣuḥ ||

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40. In Gāyatrī stanzas preference is sometimes shewn for a trochaic rhythm in the cadence. Hymns in which such preference is fairly consistent are said to be in the *Trochaic Gāyatrī* metre. In the following stanza all the verses have a strict trochaic cadence:—

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ukthám caná | śasyámānam |
ágor arīr | á ciketa |
ná gāyatráṁ | gīyámānam ||

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41. An important variation of the Anuṣṭubh stanza is found in those parts of the Rigveda which have been already referred to (§ 10) as similar in character to the Atharvaveda, and is regular in the Atharvaveda itself.

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In this variation the verses are grouped in pairs, so that the stanza consists of two distichs, and each distich of two dimeter verses. In each distich the cadence of the first verse and the opening of the second are modified in the direction of lengthening the third syllable.

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In order to make clear the nature of this change, we give to the last part of the first and third verses of the stanza the special title *semi-cadence*, and to the opening of the second and fourth verses the title *re-opening*. The variation may then be defined as follows:—

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The seventh syllable, which in the cadence is regularly short, becomes in ‘semi-cadence’ frequently long.

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The third syllable, of which the quantity in the opening is indifferent, becomes almost invariably long in the ‘re-opening.’

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To this metre the name of ‘later Anuṣṭubh’ has been given, on the ground that it is only found in the later additions to the Rigveda. Without questioning the truth of this view, it may be better to choose a more colourless epithet, and the name *epic Anuṣṭubh* is justified by the resemblance between this metre and that of the epic *śloka*.

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The following stanza shews a fully developed ‘epic’ rhythm: but the Rigveda shews every gradation from the normal Anuṣṭubh rhythm to this.

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*vāyúr asmā | úpāmanthat |*
*pináṣṭi smā | kunannamá |*
*keśí viṣá|sya pátreṇa |*
*yád rudréṇá|pibat sahá ||*

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42. Trimeter verse may be analyzed in two ways:—

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(i) into two parts, as separated by the caesura, which regularly follows either the fourth or the fifth syllable: or

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(ii) into three members, namely (*a*) the *opening*, which consists of the first four syllables; (*b*) the *break*, consisting of the fifth, sixth, and seventh syllables; and (*c*) the *cadence*, which includes the remaining syllables, beginning with the eighth.

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43. In the case of Triṣṭubh verse, the two parts consist either of four and seven syllables, or of five and six syllables each, according as the caesura is *early* (that is, after the fourth syllable), or *late* (that is, after the fifth syllable). If the caesura is early, we have a short first part and a long second part: if late, we have a long first part and a short second part.

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In the case of Jagatī verse, the second part is in each case longer by one syllable.

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In all cases the second part regularly begins with two short syllables.

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44. The 'opening' of trimeter verse, if the caesura is early, is identical in rhythm with that of dimeter verse. But if the caesura is late, the iambic rhythm is much more strictly observed, and we have a further example of syncopation in the principle that if the fourth syllable is short, the fifth must be long.

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45. The middle member of trimeter verse is termed the 'break' because the general iambic rhythm is broken at this point by the preference for two short syllables after the caesura. The remaining syllable is usually long: so that the most regular forms are || ◡ ◡ — and — || ◡ ◡, where the symbol || marks the position of the caesura.

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46. Sometimes the general iambic rhythm is not broken in the middle part of the verse, which therefore takes one of the forms || ◡ — ◡ or ◡ || — ◡. Hymns in which such rhythms are prevalent, as is the case in particular in the seventh Maṇḍala, may be said to be in Iambic Triṣṭubh (or Jagatī) metre.

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On the other hand, a still stronger contrast to the iambic rhythm is not uncommon after an early caesura, when the break takes the form of a cretic (|| — ◡ —). Hymns in which this rhythm is favoured may be said to be in Cretic Triṣṭubh (or Jagatī) metre.

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The iambic and cretic variations are occasionally found in all parts of the Rigveda, but they are only to a small extent combined in the same hymns. Hymns in the lyric metres incline to the employment of iambic variations, which therefore appear to be characteristic of the more distinctly early parts of the Rigveda.

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47. The 'cadence' of trimeter verse shews the same general rhythm as that of dimeter verse. Thus the ninth syllable, and in Jagatī verse the eleventh, are regularly short: the eighth and the tenth are regularly long, but either or both are occasionally short.

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We are, however, able to trace a progressive tendency to eliminate the employment of short syllables in the eighth and tenth places. Thus it is only in a small part of the Rigveda that a short tenth syllable is at all common: whilst the short eighth syllable is chiefly found in the shape of a syllable containing a short final vowel. The employment of these final syllables in a position from which other short syllables are excluded requires careful investigation, and has evidently some connexion with the varying quantities which, as has been already noticed (§ 15 iii.), the Saṃhitā text assigns in many cases to final vowels.

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48. The following stanzas illustrate the most important forms of Trimeter verse, the division of the ‘members’ being again shewn by perpendicular lines:—

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Normal Triṣṭubh stanza:—

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*bṛhaspátiḥ* || *prathamám* | *jāyamānaḥ* |
*mahó jyótiṣaḥ* || *paramé víoman* |
*saptásias* || *tuvijātó ráveṇa* |
*ví saptáraśmir* || *adhamat támāṃsi* ||

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iv 50 4.

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Normal Jagatī stanza:—

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*ádadā ár|bhām* || *maha|té vacasyáve* |
*kakṣīvate* || *vṛcayám* | *indra sunvaté* |
*ménābhavo* || *vṛṣaṇaś|vásya sukrato* |
*víśvét tá te* || *sávane|ṣu pravāciā* ||

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i 51 13.

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Triṣṭubh stanza with iambic variations:—

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*agním vo de|vám* || *agní|bhiḥ sajóṣāḥ* |
*yájiṣṭhaṃ dū|tám* || *adhva|ré kṛṇudhvam* |
*yó mártie|ṣu* || *nídhru|vir ṛtávā* |
*tapurmūrdhā* || *ghṛtá-an|naḥ pavākáḥ* ||

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vii 3 1.

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Jagatī stanza with cretic variations:—

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*imám stómam* || *árhate* | *jātávedase* |
*rátham iva* || *sám mahe|mā manīṣáyā* |
*bhadrá hí naḥ* || *prámatir* | *asya saṃsādi* |
*ágne sakhyé* || *| má riṣā|mā vayám táva* ||

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i 94 1.

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49. ‘Decasyllabic’ verses correspond generally to Triṣṭubh verses with the omission of a syllable immediately before or after the caesura: this omission we term a rest. Two types are used with sufficient regularity to have given special names to the metres of the hymns which contain them: but these, as well as others, are frequently found in combination with Triṣṭubh verse.

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50. The Virātsthānā verse has a rest at the fifth place, followed by a trochee, as:—

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rási kṣáyaṃ || · rási | mitráṃ asmé |
rási śárdha || · indra | márutaṃ naḥ |
sajóṣaso || · yé ca | mandasānāḥ |
prá vāyávaḥ || · pānti | ágraṇītim ||

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51. The Dvipadā Virāj verse has a rest at the sixth place, the quantity of the seventh syllable being indifferent: the two parts are then so similar in form that the stanza of two decasyllabic verses may also be described as containing four verses of five syllables, or pentads. Example:—

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rayír ná citrá || · sū́ro ná samdṛ́k |
áyur ná prāṇó || · nītyo ná sūnúḥ ||

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Here the division into members is only of historic interest, shewing the relation of this metre to the Triṣṭubh.

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52. In two hymns of the Rigveda a similar metre is based upon the Jagatī verse, the ‘rest’ occupying the position of the syllable first following the caesura, whether early or late. To this metre, following the traditional name of the author of the hymns, we may give the name Bhārgavā. If the rest be denoted by a point ·, the most common forms of the break in Bhārgavā verse are || ◡ — | and ◡ || · — |.

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The following stanza is entirely composed of Bhārgavā verses, the two types alternating:—

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śriyé máryāsa || · añjíṃr akṛṇvata |
sumárutaṃ || · ná pūrvír áti kṣápaḥ |
divás putrā́sa || · étā ná yetire |
ādityásas || · tá akṛá ná vāvṛdhuh ||

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53. It seems evident that the decasyllabic metres (amongst which we include the Bhārgavā) presuppose and are derived from the more common trimeter metres. Their precise relation to them is an important subject of investigation. As none of these metres are found in the Atharvaveda or later literature, there is a presumption that, like the lyric metres, they belong to the distinctively early parts of the Rigveda.

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54. An important feature in trimeter verse is *contamination*, or the combination in one verse, stanza, or hymn of parts that do not correspond. Contamination may be external or internal.

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55. *External contamination* is the combination of Triṣṭubh and Jagatī verses in the same stanza, and of Triṣṭubh and Jagatī stanzas in the same hymn. In hymns of which the general character is Jagatī it is quite usual for one or two Triṣṭubh stanzas or verses to appear towards the end of the hymn; consequently it is rather the absence of such variations that calls for notice, at least in hymns of any length. But the contamination of a Triṣṭubh hymn by Jagatī is only exceptional in the Rigveda, though very common in the Atharvaveda and later verse, down to and including the epic period. It forms therefore a connecting link between the Rigveda and this later literature.

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56. *Internal contamination* is the combination of two parts of a Triṣṭubh verse which correspond to different positions of the caesura. The combination of two parts consisting of four and six syllables respectively gives the equivalent of a decasyllabic verse with a rest at the caesura; verses of this type, whatever their origin may be, are fairly common in all parts of the Rigveda, as for example

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*inó rājann | · ‖ araṭíḥ sámiddhaḥ |* x 3 1 a.

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The combination of two parts consisting of five and seven syllables respectively may be termed the *hybrid* verse. It is often found in the same hymn with external contamination: the two features are exemplified in the first and third verses of the following stanza :—

Cites (1)

Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit