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The Sanskrit Drama in its Origin, Development, Theory & Practice c10.s5: 5. Bhāsa's Style

The Sanskrit Drama in its Origin, Development, Theory & Practice c10.s5

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5. Bhāsa's Style

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The rapidity and directness of the action of Bhāsa's plays is reflected in his style. More than any other dramatist, he uses the verse to further the progress of the play, in lieu of devoting it to descriptions rather poetic than directly aiding the drama, and it is characteristic that he freely employs monostichs, which are rare later. On the other hand, he is ready to resort to monologue; that on the third Act of the *Avimāraka* suggested perhaps the monologue of Çarvilaka in the *Mṛcchakaṭikā*, whose author must have known Bhāsa's works intimately.

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The dominating influence on Bhāsa's style was clearly that of the epic and in special of Vālmīki, whose great work inevitably impressed itself on the minds of all his successors. The effects are visible not merely in the dramas with epic subject-matter, but extend throughout Bhāsa's plays. The results of this influence are all to the good; the necessities of the drama saved Bhāsa from the one great defect of the epic style, the lack of measure, which permits the *Rāmāyaṇa* to illustrate by twenty-nine similes the sorrows of Sītā in her captivity, while in the *Abhiṣekanāṭaka* the dramatist is content with one. On the other hand he owes to it the relative simplicity of his diction, and his freedom from the excesses of the poetic equivalent of the nominal style, which comes to dominate later Sanskrit literature. The use of long compounds is obviously and plainly undramatic; carried to excess it must have rendered a Sanskrit drama unintelligible even to a highly cultivated audience as far as the verses were concerned, and it is an essential dramatic merit in Bhāsa that his expression is far easier to follow than in much of later dramatic poetry. He possesses in fact that clearness, which is theoretically a merit of the Kāvya style, but which is signally neglected by the average Kāvya writer in his anxiety to display the complete familiarity which he possesses with every side of the art of poetry. As far as we can judge from the scanty fragments of Aṣvaghoṣa's dramas, that poet was more complex than Bhāsa, and certainly so in his epics, which aided powerfully in the formation of Kālidāsa's epic and dramatic style.

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Bhāsa, of course, is not in the slightest degree akin to a poet of the people; he is an accomplished master of the art of poetry, but one whose good sense and taste preserve him from adopting in drama the artifices which are permitted in the court epic and lyric which were intended to be studied at leisure. The simple and sententious is beloved of Bhāsa: thus Karṇa repels the objections of Ṣalya to his parting with armour and earring to the disguised Indra:¹

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¹ *Karṇabhāra*, 22.

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*ṣikṣā kṣayaṃ gacchati kālaparyayāt: subaddhamūlā nipatanti pādapāḥ*
*jalaṃ jalasthāgataṃ ca ṣuṣyati: hutaṃ ca dattaṃ ca tathaiva tiṣṭhati.*

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'Learning decayeth with the passing of time; though firm their roots, trees fall; the water of a lake drieth up; but sacrifices and gifts endure.' When Sītā is forced to undergo the ordeal by fire Lakṣmaṇa exclaims:²

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² *Abhiṣekanāṭaka*, vi. 21.

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*vijñāya devyāṣ ṣaucaṃ ca ṣrutvācāryasya ṣāsanaṃ*
*dharmasnehāntare nyastā buldhir dolāyate mama.*

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'I know the queen's chastity; I have heard the bidding of our preceptor; like a swing, my mind doth move 'twixt duty and love.' When Rāma falls at his father's feet on the order being given for his coronation, he tells us:¹

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¹ *Pratimānāṭaka*, i. 6.

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*samam bāṣpeṇa patatā tasyopari mamāpy adhaḥ*
*pitur me kleditau pādau mamāpi kleditaṃ ṣiraḥ.*

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‘My father's feet were wet with tears I let fall on them, and my head was wet with tears he let fall over me.' When Devakī must yield, for the sake of saving it, her child, it is said of her:²

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² *Bālacarita*, i. 13.

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*hṛdayeneha taraṅgair dvidhābhūteva gacchati*
*yathā nabhasi toye ca candralekhā dvidhā kṛtā.*

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‘She is divided; her heart remaineth here, her body goeth yonder, as in cloud and water the digit of the moon is divided.' Rāvaṇa's contempt for Rāma as a foe is forcibly expressed:³

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³ *Abhiṣekanāṭaka*, iii. 20.

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*kathaṃ lambasataḥ siṃho mṛgeṇa vinipātyate*
*gajo vā sumahān mattaḥ sṛgālena nihanyate?*

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‘Can the deer bring low the lion with flowing mane? Can the jackal slay the mighty elephant in his wrath?' In the *Cārudatta*⁴ the darkness is happily described:

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⁴ i. 20.

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*sulabhaṣaraṇaṃ āṣrayo bhayānām: vanagahanaṃ timiraṃ ca tulyam eva*
*ubhayaṃ api hi rakṣyate 'ndhakāre: janayati yaṣ ca bhayāni yaṣ ca bhītaḥ.*

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‘Affording easy refuge, yet abodes of fear, the forest depths and darkness are akin; for the shadows guard alike him who feareth and him who causeth fear.' More ambitious is a verse given in the *Subhāṣitāvali*:⁵

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⁵ v. 1619.

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*kaṭhinahṛdaye muñca krodhaṃ sukhapratighātakam*
*likhati divasaṃ yātaṃ yātaṃ Yamaḥ kila mānini*
*vayasi taruṇe naitad yuktaṃ cale ca samāgame*
*bhavati kalaho yāvat tāvad varaṃ subhage ratam.*

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‘Hard-hearted maiden, lay aside the anger that doth impede our joy; death entereth on his register every day as it goeth, disdainful one; not meet is this in thy tender youth, for love is fleeting; rather spend in love the time we lose in this quarrel.' The simple figures of speech are freely used by Bhāsa, and he shows as usual a marked fondness for the accumulation of similar sounds, as in *sajalajaladhara*, *sanīranīrada*, or *kuladayam hanti* madena nārī: kūladvayaṃ kṣubdhajalā nadīva. More interesting are instances of his power, which is specially manifest in the *Svapnavāsavadattā* and the *Pratimāṇāṭaka*, of expressing strong emotion adequately and forcibly. Thus we have the indignant upbraiding of Kaikeyī by the angry Bharata:¹

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¹ *Pratimāṇāṭaka*, iii. 17.

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*vayam ayaçasā cīreṇāryo nṛpo gṛhamṛtyunā*
*pratataruditaiḥ kṛtsnāyodhyā mṛgaiḥ saha Lakṣmaṇaḥ*
*dayitatanayāḥ çokenāmbhāḥ snuṣādhvapariçramair*
*dhig iti vacasā cogreṇātmā tvayā nanu yojitāḥ*

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‘Hast thou not brought upon me disgrace and dishonour, on my noble father death at the hands of his dearest, on all Ayodhyā ceaseless lamentation, exile on Lakṣmaṇa, sorrow on the noble ladies, who love their children, for the cruel journey imposed on thy daughter-in-law, and on thyself the hateful reproach of a shameful deed?’ Equally effective is Lakṣmaṇa’s protest against Rāma’s acquiescence in his exclusion from the throne:²

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² *Ibid.*, i. 18.

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*yadi na sahase rājño mohaṃ dhanuḥ spṛça mā dayā*
*svajananibhṛtaḥ sarvo ’py evam mṛduḥ paribhūyate*
*atha na rucitam muñca mām aham kṛtaniçcayo*
*yuvatirahitam kartum lokaṃ yataç calitā vayam*

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‘If thou wilt not endure the king’s infatuation, take thy bow, show no pity. Hidden among his own folk every weakling is thus overborne. But, if thou wilt not, leave me free at least; my mind is intent to make this world free of that youthful one, since cheated we have been.’ (Bharata’s devotion is expressed happily enough:³

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³ *Ibid.*, iii. 24.

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*tatra yasyāmi yatrāsau vartate Lakṣmaṇapriyaḥ*
*nāyodhyā taṃ vināyodhyā sāyodhyā yatra Rāghavaḥ*

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‘Thither will I go where dwelleth Lakṣmaṇa’s beloved; without him Ayodhyā is not Ayodhyā; where Rāghava is, there is Ayodhyā.’ A martial spirit breathes in Virāṭa’s words:⁴

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⁴ *Pañcarātra*, ii. 28.

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*tāḍitasya hi yodhasya çlāghanīyena karmaṇā*
*akālāntaritā pūjā nāçayaty eva vedanām*

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‘Instant fame destroys the pangs of the warrior stricken in performing a deed of valour.’ There is manly indignation and pathos in Dhṛtarāṣṭra’s mourning over Abhimanyu’s death:⁵

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⁵ *Dūtaghaṭotkaca*, 17.

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*bahūnāṃ samupetānām ekasmin nirghṛṇātmanām* *bāle putre praharatāṃ kathaṃ na patitā bhujāḥ.* ‘How could these cruel men bear to raise their arms to smite one young boy, alone against such a concourse?’ The necessity of toil to achieve any end is well brought out in a verse in the *Pratijñāyaugandharāyaṇa*,¹ which has a curious parallel in Aṣvaghoṣa:²

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¹ i. 18.

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² *Pratimānāṭaka*, p. xi.

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*kāṣṭhād agnir jāyate mathyamānād: bhūmis toyaṃ khan-yamānā dadāti* *sotsahānāṃ nāsty asādhyaṃ narāṇām: mārgārabdhāḥ sar-vayatnāḥ phalanti.* ‘Fire ariseth from the rubbing of timber; the earth when dug giveth water; nothing is there that men may not obtain by effort; every exertion duly undertaken doth bear fruit.’ A profound truth, the rareness of gratitude, is emphasized in the *Svapnavāsavadattā*:³

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³ iv. 9.

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*guṇānāṃ vā viçālānāṃ satkārāṇāṃ ca nityaçaḥ* *kartāraḥ sulabhā loke vijñātāras tu durlabhāḥ.* ‘There are many to show conspicuous virtue and to do constant deeds of kindness, but few are there who are grateful for such actions.’ The heavy burden of the duties of a king is effectively described in the *Avimāraka*:⁴

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⁴ i. 12.

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*dharmaḥ prāg eva cintyaḥ sacivamatigatiḥ prekṣitavyā sva-buddhyā* *pracchādyau rāgaroṣau mṛduparuṣaguṇau kālayogena kāryau* *jñeyaṃ lokānuvṛttam paracaranayanair maṇḍalam prekṣi-tavyam* *rakṣyo yatnād ihātmā raṇacirasi punas so 'pi nāvekṣitavyaḥ.* ‘First there must be consideration of the injunctions of the law, then the train of the minister’s thought must be followed; desire and anger must be concealed; mercy and harshness must be applied as expediency demands; the temper of the people must be ascertained through the aid of spies as well as the demeanour of neighbouring kings; one’s life must be guarded with every care, but in the forefront of battle heed for it must be laid aside.’ The position of a minister is no enviable one:⁵

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⁵ *Avimāraka*, i. 5.

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*prasiddhau kāryāṇām pravadati janaḥ pārthivabalam* *vipattau vispaṣṭaṃ sacivam atidoṣaṃ janayati* *amātyā ity uktāḥ çrutisukham udāraṃ nṛpatibhiḥ* *susūkṣmaṃ daṇḍyante matibalavidagdhāḥ kupuruṣāḥ.* ‘If policy succeeds, the people acclaim the prince’s might; if disaster ensue, it condemns the incompetency of the minister; poor fools, puffed up by their strength of intellect, they receive from kings the noble and sweet sounding style of “counsellor” only to be punished sharply for any failure.’

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Bhāsa is fond of expressing typical feelings in simple language which later poets would deem lacking in ornament; thus he expresses a mother’s feelings regarding her daughter’s marriage in the *Pratijñāyaugandharāyaṇa*:¹

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¹ ii. 7.

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*adattety āgatā lajjā datteti vyathitam manaḥ* *dharmasnehāntare nyastā duḥkhitāḥ khalu mātaraḥ.* ‘Shame were it if she be not betrothed; yet if betrothed sorrow is one’s lot; between duty and love mothers are sore vexed in heart.’ The responsibility of a teacher is set out by Droṇa in the *Pañcarātra*:²

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² i. 18.

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*atītya bandhūn avalaṅghya mitrāny: ācāryam āgacchati çiṣyadoṣaḥ.* *bālaṃ hy apatyaṃ gurave pradātum: naivāparādho ’sti pitur na mātuḥ.* ‘A pupil’s fault passes over relatives and friends and settles on the teacher, for it is no wrong in father or mother to hand over a young child to a preceptor.’

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Bhāsa’s power of depicting irony is specially prominent in the *Svapnavāsavadattā*,³ where Vāsavadattā is driven to weave the garland for the new queen’s marriage, on the score of her skill in this art. Rāvaṇa shows the heads which he represents as those of Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa to Sītā, only to hear the announcement that his son is slain in the battle, by the very two whose death he has feigned.⁴ Effective is the contrast between Vālin’s splendour and his fall in his son Aṅgada’s lament:⁵

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³ iii. p. 25.

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⁴ *Abhiṣekanāṭaka*, v. p. 56.

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⁵ *Ibid.*, i. p. 10.

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*atibalasukhaçāyī pūrvam āsīr harīndraḥ: kṣititalaparivartī kṣīṇasarvāṅgaceṣṭaḥ.* ‘Soft indeed thy couch aforetime as lord of the apes, who now dost lie on the ground, thy every movement stilled in death’, and Duryodhana’s fall is not less effectively described.¹

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¹ *Ūrubhaṅga*, 29.

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A characteristic of Bhāsa is his fondness for pithy proverbial phrases, ‘Everything suits a handsome figure’, ‘Misfortunes never come singly’, ‘Good news sounds more pleasant from a friend’s mouth (*pṛaṇivedamānāni piāṇi piadarāṇi honti*)’ ‘Man’s fate is as mobile as an elephant’s trunk’, ‘There are many obstacles in the road to fortune’, ‘A small cause begets grave misfortune’ (are found in the *Avimāraka* alone.) An idea once expressed fascinates Bhāsa and is repeated again and again in the same terms, a fact which incidentally helps to assure the genuineness of the plays. For some phrases he has a special fondness; *mā* with the instrumental is normal in lieu of the ordinary *alam*, which he also uses; *aho tu khalu* to introduce a stanza; *kim nu khalu* in a question; *āma* and *bādham* to indicate assent; *sukham āryasya* as a phrase of greeting. Especially is he devoted to the term *vara*, sometimes before, usually after, the noun whose quality it intensifies; the use occurs even twice or thrice in a single stanza.

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The harmony and melody of Bhāsa’s style, added to its purity and perspicuity, have no better proof than the imitations of his verses which are unquestionably to be traced in Kālidāsa, who attests thus his practical appreciation of the merits of the dramatist, with whose established fame his nascent genius had to contend.

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