The Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation, from Prehistoric Times to the Present Day c19.s1: Index I. Subject Index

The Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation, from Prehistoric Times to the Present Day c19.s1

Language: English

Index I. Subject Index

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Administration, women's part in, as regnant queens, 218-9; as queen regents, 220-2; as queens and officers, 223-4; part of ordinary women in, 224-5; recent progress, 225-8.

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Adoption, prejudice against, 169, 174, 281.

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Adultery, in men, 374-5; in women, 375-77, 435, 443.

Age of marriage, about 16 before *c.* 400 B. C., 58-62, 411; 14 or 15 during 400 B. C. to 100 A.D., 62-4; before puberty after *c.* 200 A. D., 66-8, 419-20; but not among Kshatriyas, 69; curses on post-puberty marriages, 67; age lowered to 7 or 8, 68, 70, 429-30; why lowering of age accepted, 71-2, 419-20; developments during the last 50 years, 73-5.

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Akabar, on child marriage, 72; on Satī, 155, 158-9.

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Ancestor worship, 5.

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*Ārsha* marriage, 52-3.

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Aryasamaj on *Niyoga*, 126; permits women to sacrifice, 249-50.

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*Asaudāyika strīdhana*, 266-7.

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Ascetic ideals, effects and influence of, 147, 174, 176, 180, 185-6; see also 414, 424-6, 432-3.

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Assemblies, political, and women, 224-5.

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Astrology in marriage, 85-6.

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*Āsura* marriage, 46-50.

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Bāṇa on Satī custom, 145-6.

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Betrothal, 93-4.

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Blouse, 353-5.

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Bodice, 352-6.

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*Brahmacharya* discipline for girls, 237-8.

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*Brāhma* marriage, 44, 55-7.

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Brahmana widows and Satī, 150-2, 433.

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*Brahmavādinīs*, 13, 237.

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*Brahmayajña*, lady scholars mentioned in, 12.

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Breast-band, 355.

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Bride, qualifications of, 86-92; age of, see under Age of marriage; why conceived as a gift in marriage, 55-7; treatment of, 106-9; see also under Maiden and Wife.

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Bridegroom, qualifications of, 86-92; see also under Husband.

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Bride-price, 4, 46-50, 52-3, 259-60.

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Buddhism and nuns, 15, 38, 210, 246-8.

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Business and women, 213.

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Busts, female, why uncovered in some sculptures and paintings, 339-46.

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Captive women, 369-72, 377-9.

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Careers for women, teaching and medical lines, 212; business, 213; music, 213-7.

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Caste and marriage, 88-92. *Chaṇḍātaka*, 352. *Chaturthīkarman*, 61. Child marriage, 67-71; advantages of, 71-2; see also under Age of marriage. Christianity, and marriage, 102, 110; and women's seclusion, 209-10; and women preachers, 247, and tutelage theory, 399. Civilisation and women, 1-2. Cloth, varieties of, 355. Co-education, 16, 30-2. Coiffure, fashions of, 360-1. Concerts, 17, 214. Congress, Indian Women's, 226-7. Conjugal life, ideals of, 113-7; in reality, 121-9. Conqueror and captive women, 377-9. Consummation of marriage, 59, 95-6. Contract, marriage as a, 57. Criminal assault, 369-72, 443-4. Cynical attitude, 23, 385, 410.

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*Dahara*, 62, 352. *Daiva* marriage, 53-4. Dancing, as a subject of study, 17. Dancing girls, 214-7. Daughter, less welcome than sons, 3-4; anxiety for the birth of, 4; almost equal to a son, 280-1; causes of greater unpopularity of, 5-7, 408; tendency to deprecate, condemned, 7-8; infanticide of, 8-10; general solicitude for, 10-1; functions in parents' house of, 17; marriage age of, see under Age of marriage; proprietary rights of: when without brothers, can inherit patrimony, 280-5; when with brothers and unmarried, an heir to patrimony in Vedic age, 286; share to a married daughter with brothers allowed only by Śukra, 288, but by no others, 287-90; extent of marriage portion allowed to, 290-2; should we allow a share now? 293-9. Daughter-in-law, treatment of, 106-9; property rights of, 325-7. Death duties, 310. Desertion of wives, 103-4, 296. Dharma on social reform, 446-8. Dīrghatamas on women's marriage, 39. Discipline, for women students, 236-8; for nuns, 247-8. Divorce, once permitted, 98-101, 411; later prohibited, 101-2; should it be now made legal? 102-5, 442-3, 467; in England, 102-104. Dowry system, 82-5. Dramas, 17, 214. *Drāpi*, 334, 351. Dravidian dress, 342-4. Dress, in Vedic and epic times, 324-6; as disclosed by literature, 336-8; causes of insufficient dress in sculptures and paintings, 339-47 was it shown partly by colouring in sculptures? 340-1; Dravidian, 342-4; different fashions of, 347-50; in Muslim period, 356; in modern times, 357-8. *Dvirāgamana*, 96. Dyarchy at home, 109-10.

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Earning capacity of women, 26-7, 31, 211-3, 440-1. Education of girls; literary, 11-2, 27-8, 29-30, 408-410; in fine arts, 23, 28; in military exercises, 24-5; in useful arts, 26-7; how affected by marriage age, 18-9, 29, 66, 67, 75; discipline during, 235-7; suggested improvements in, 30-3; as key to women's progress, 439-40.

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Epigraphical evidence, 42-5, 289, 317-8.

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Family life, ideal of, 112-20; and modern women, 227-8.

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Female infanticide, 8-10.

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Franchise for women, 227.

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Gambling, 254, 408.

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Games, 17-8.

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*Gāndharva* marriage, 42, 50-2. 79-81.

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*Garbhādhāna*, 96.

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Girls, birth of, unwelcome, 3-4; things somewhat different in early times, 4-5; infanticide of, 8-11; as objects of good omen, 11; scholars, two types of, 13; subjects studied by, 13-5, 23-4, 25, 28; recreations of, 17-8; nature of proper education for, 30-2; see also Education, Maiden and Age of marriage.

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*Gotra* and marriage, 48-9, 87-88. 97.

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*Gotraja Sapiṇḍa* widows, 324-5.

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Harems, 427-8.

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*Harikari*, 149.

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Head-dress, 335-6.

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Householder, 36-7.

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Husband, status of, according to marriage ritual, 109-10; acquires greater dominence over wife, 111-2, 127-8, 254, 422; as *guru* and god to the wife, 111-2, 431; code of marital conduct recommended to, 111-7; less solicitous to follow it, 121-6, 431; ill treatment of wife by, 127-9, 422; as owner of wife, 253-5; must maintain wife, 256; rights of, over Stridhana, 266-7; divine husbands, 68.

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Infanticide of girls, 8-10.

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Inheritance, rights of; of the daughter, 280-299; of the widow, 299-323; of the mother, 323-4; of the grandmother, 324; of Gotraja widows, 324-5; of the widowed daughter-in-law, 325-7; see under Daughter and Widow for details.

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Iranian civilisation, ancient, 4, 36, 37, 40, 58, 109, 110, 230, 234, 236.

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Jacket, 353-5.

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Jainism and nuns, 15, 38, 212, 246-9.

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Joint coinage, 219-20.

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Joint family system, 71-2, 255-8, 268-9, 271, 310-3.

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Joint ownership, 109, 255-8, 409.

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Kadva Kunbis, 42.

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Karma theory, 143, 146-7.

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Karve D. K., 440.

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Katha tribe and Satī, 143.

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Ketius, wife of, becomes Satī, 142.

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Kṛṣhṇa on *Kshātra* marriage, 44-5.

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*Kshātra* marriage, 44-46.

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Kshatriyas, Satī custom among, 137, 142-3, 150-1, 432-3; post-puberty marriages among, 21, 69, 430. Kumārapāla sanctions widow's right of inheritance, 309-10. *Kumkuma*, 362.

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*Lahaṅgā*, 356. Landed property, 258, 267, 270, 292, 409-10. Leva Kunbis, 42. Levirate, See under *Niyoga*. Lip paints, 361-2. Literacy, value of, 437; see under Education also. Love marriages, 42, 50-2, 79-81.

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Maiden, as embodiment of Lakshmī, 11; part in coronation of, 11; voice of, in marriage settlement, 77-82, 421; children of, 59; see also under Daughter and Girl. Maintenance, 104, 128, 256, 264, 301-3, 307. Maṇḍanamiśra's wife, 21. Marriage, importance of, 34; evolution of, 34-6; as a religious necessity in Vedic period, 36-7, 408-9; but exceptions allowed, 37-8; not viewed as a contract, 57; equated to *upanayana*, 39, 240, 429, and made obligatory in Hinduism for women but not for men, 39-40; not so in Buddhism and Jainism, 248; effects of this step on property law, 289-90, 331; bride as a gift in, 56-7, 84; different forms of, 41-57; see also under each form; astrology in, 85-6; rituals in, 93-7; when complete, 96-7; children as aim of, 118. Masaga, queen of, 220. Medical line and women, 21, 212. Megasthenes on marraiage age, 65-6; on queens, 219; on Satī, 140. Menstruation period, impurity during, 229-31. Mother, reverence for, 119-20; as an heir, 323-4; at partition, 328-30. Mother-in-law, 106-9. Muslim influence and rule, 27, 72, 155-6, 206-7, 288, 350-1, 356, 362-4, 371-4, 378-79.

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Nagar Brahmanas and monogamy, 103, 441. *Nagnikā*, 61. Nair women, 27. Naojot ceremony, 236. *Niyoga*, the custom elsewhere, 168-9; why favoured, 169-70; conditions of, 170-1; number of sons from, 171-2; opposition to, 172-3; restrictions on, 173-4; stamped out, 174-6; see also, 280, 422, 425-7. Non-Aryan women, marriages with, 417-9. Non-cooperation movement, 211, 226. Nose-ring, a non-Hindu ornament, 358-60. Nudity in pre-Muslim period, 339-40.

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Obedience and wife, 110. Ointments, 361-2. Ornaments, 358-60, nose-ring, 362-4; economic value of, 364-5.

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*Paiśācha* marriage, 42-3. *Paridhānam*, 334-5. *Pārināhaya*, 260. Parks, 208. Partition and mother, 119, 328-30; and grandmother, 328; and wife, 327-8. Pauranic religion and women, 244-5, 434. Philosophy and women, 14-5, 246-51. Physical punishment for the wife, 111; in the west, 111-2. Poetesses, 12, 19-21, 408. Polyandry, 132-4. Polygamy, 103, 122-6, 423, 438, 441-442, 467. Post-puberty marriages, 58-64, curses on, 67, in recent years, 74-5, dangers of, 75-6, among Kshatriyas, 21, 69, 430. *Prājāpatya* marriage, 54-5. Preachers, women as, 212, in Christianity, 247. Privy Council, 270, 322. Progeny, as aim of marriage, 118. Promiscuity, 34-5. Proprietary rights of women, in early times elsewhere, 252-3; in India, 253, why recognised, 426-7; improvements suggested in, 285, 293-7, 330-4, 397-8, 426-7, 440-5; see also under Inheritance, Daughter, Wife and Widow. Public life and women, careers open to, 212-7; part in administration of, 217-25; recent developments, 225-8, 446. Purda system, not known upto c. 100 B. C., 197-8, 408; in pre-Muslim period, 200-5; within family, 206; becomes general in Muslim period, 206-8; in Europe, 209-11; see also 423, 434-5. *Putrikā*, 281-2.

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Queens, 223-4. Queen regents, 220-2. Queen regnants, 218-9.

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Raja Rama Mohan Roy and Satī, 166. Rajputana, princesses in, 25, 27; dowry system in, 84; Satī custom in, 153-5, 166-7; princesses of, in Muslim harems, 372-3, literacy in, 27, late marriages in, 69. *Rākshasa* marriage, 44-6. Rāma, his attitude towards Sītā, 367-9. Rationalism, 245-6, 434. Religion, privileges of, how important, 229; enjoins marriages as a religious necessity, 232-3, 414-5; allows women to participate in sacrifices in early times, 231-2, 234-5, withdraws the permission later, 241-3; helps women, 5, 231-3, 414, retards their progress, 5, 240-2, 419; allows reform, 446-8; see also under Asceticism. Remarriage of men, 130-2, 426. Remarriage of women, in Vedic age, 177-8; permitted by Sūtras, 179; of child widows, 181-2; prohibition of, 182-3, 422, 425-6; consequences of the prohibition of, 183-4; modern agitation for, 186-8; see also 432, 438, 444. Restitution of conjugal rights, 296.

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Sacrifices, by women alone, 232, 234-5, 411; jointly with husband, 233; place of the wife of a lower caste in, 236; formal association of women in, 239, growing complexity, the cause, 239-40, 418-9 prohibited to women, why, 242-3.

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*Sadyodvāhās*, 13.

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Sagotra marriages, 87-8.

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Śaka rule, nature of, 424.

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*Sakachha sari*, 347-9.

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Salvation, eligibility of women for, 246.

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Śalya on bride-price, 48.

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Sāmaveda, chanting of, by women, 23, 233.

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*Saṁnyāsa*, hostility to, 232-3, 424; followers of, unsympathetic to women, 384-92, 424; prohibited to women, 38, 249.

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*Śāmulya*, 351.

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*Sandhyā* and women, 13, 234.

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Śaṅkarāchārya, 21.

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*Saptapadī*, 95, 97.

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*Sari*, 335, how worn, 337-42, modes of wearing, 347-50.

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Satī custom, effect of, on child marriage, 71; causes of, 135-7; prevalence of, elsewhere, 136; not in Vedic and epic periods, 138-40, 409, 411; early references to, 141; epics and Purāṇas, 141-2; during 300 B. C. to 400 A. D., 142-3; opposition to, 145-7, 165; and Scythian influence, 147; supported by later Smṛitis, 147-8; in Kashmir, 149; not followed by Brahmanas in the beginning, 151; in northern India, 152-3; in Karnatak, 153 and south India, 154, 163; in Rajputana, 154; among the Sikhs, 154-5, and Marathas, 155; attitude of Muslim government to, 155-6; Satī procedure, 156-8; was force exercised on widows? 158-62; made illegal in British India and Indian states, 166-7; see also 426, 432-3.

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*Saudāyika Strīdhana*, 266-7.

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Schools, 17.

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Sculptural evidence about Purda, 211-2; about dress, 338-47.

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Semi-nudity in works of art, 339-346.

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Separation from joint family, 269, 310-2, 327-30.

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Sex morality, 34-6, 374-6, 431, 442.

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Sewing, antiquity of, 350-2.

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Shorts, 351-2.

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*Sindhūra*, 362.

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Singing girls, 213-7, 431-2.

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Sītā, age at marriage of, 62-3; starts for forest, 198; treatment of, by Rāma, 367-9.

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Smṛitis sympathetic to women, 255, 369-71, 435, 443; unsympathetic to women, 125-9, 243, 422-3.

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Spinning and women, 26-7.

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Spinsters, 37-8.

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Spiritual lineage, 40-1.

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Stitching, antiquity of, 350-2.

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Strīdhana, origin of, 259-60; powers of women over, 245, 261, 266-72; scope of, 262-4; differences among jurists about, 265-6; inheritance to, 272-5; general survey of, 275-6; future development of, 277-8, 298.

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Śūdra, status of, and women, 12, 19, 237, 241-3, 381, 393, 429, 433, 436.

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Supersession, 125-6, 256-7, 327.

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Svayaṁvara, 78-81, 421.

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Śvetaketu on marriage, 35.

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Teaching and women, 15, 41. Temples and singing girls, 213-7. Tonsure of widows, unknown in early times, 188-9; when and why introduced, 22, 189-91; now disappearing, 191; see also 411, 413. Tutelage of women, origin of the theory, 394-5; its meaning, 395-6; how far real, 396-8, 427; in the West, 398-401.

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Unchastity, 128, 272, 308, 374-377. Under-garment, 334. *Upanayana* of girls, 11, 19, 38, 236-8, 240-1, 243, 250; consequences of the prohibition of, 241-2; see also 415, 421, 429. Upper garment, 330, 337, 339, 342.

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Varāhamihira on women, 386-8. Vedas, study of, by women, 11-2, 238, 421; hymns in, by women, 12, 238; women permitted to chant Sāma hymns, 23; effects of the increase in the volume of, 238-9. *Vikachchha sari*, 347-9. *Vratas* and women, 245.

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Wages and Strīdhana, 263, 277. Weber on female infanticide, 8. Western civilisation and women: husband's right to beat the wife, 111-2; to sell her, 252-3; to demand obedience, 110; custom of levirate, 168-9; custom of seclusion, 209-11; preaching prohibited to women, 247; proprietary rights not recognised, 252-3, 276; tutelage theory, 398-401, 407. Widow, dress of, 355-6; general condition of, 134, 168, 191-5; not an heir to husband in early times: why, 299-301; allowed maintenance only, 301-2; recognised as an heir by some at *c.* 200 A. D., p. 303; opposition to this step, 303-4; compromise proposals, 304-5; her champions' arguments, 305-7; an heir in the Deccan first, p. 308, and then in northern India, 309-10; an heir under Dāyabhāga even in an undivided family, 310-2; not so under Mitāksharā, 311-2; now an heir even in undivided families, 322-3; her powers over her inheritance, 313-322. For widows and Satī, tonsure, levirate and remarriage, see under Satī, Tonsure, Niyoga and Remarriage respectively.

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Wife, her treatment of, in husband's house, 106-9; relations with husband of, 109-117; and household management, 116; as husband's pupil, 111-2; to revere him as god, 431; deterioration in the position of, 125-30; supersession of, 125-6, 256-7, 327; behaviour in husband's absence of, 204-5; how long to wait for husband, 178-9; as husband's property, 253-5; can own no property, 261; as joint owner with husband, 255-8; consent for transfer of property of, 258, 445; and Strīdhana, see under Strīdhana.

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Women; general condition in Vedic period, 406-10; in the age of the Brāhmaṇas and Upanishads, 410-2; during *c.* 500 B. C. to *c.* 500 A. D., 420-8; during 500-1800 A. D., 428-35; why the position was better in earlier times, 412-5; why it deteriorated later, 392-3, 415-21; deprecatory passages about: partly views of disappointed men, 383-5, 410; partly merely cynical, 385; and partly deliberately written to blacken women's character, 385-6; their fallacy exposed, 385-8; patronising attitude towards, causes of, 401-3, 438; why treatment and attitude must change, 438-9; women as chattel in India and West, 252-4; as religiously impure during menses, 229-31; deterioration in the character of, causes, 392-3; women as embodiment of good fortune, 382; not an impediment in religion, 232-3; not to be killed, 380-2; good treatment recommended of, 382-3; as custodians of culture and religion, 28-9, 244-6, 250-1, 434, 436-7; and Śūdra status, 12, 19, 234, 241-3, 381, 393, 429, 433, 436, attitude towards captured or ravished women, 367-74; towards women going astray, 375-7, 435, 443; some grievances of, common with men, 437; some extenuating circumstances, 392-3, 436; in primitive society, 406-7; treatment of, as a test of civilisation, 1-2; careers for, 15, 212-3; and spinning, 26-7; economic position of, *see* under Proprietary rights; as poetesses, authors, teachers and doctors, 12, 15-6, 19-21.