Public Administration in Ancient India c13: Chapter X: The Subordinate Executive

Public Administration in Ancient India c13

Language: English

Chapter X: The Subordinate Executive

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The details of executive administration were in the hands of the subordinate officials (yukta and upayukta)¹ working under the control and general supervision of the Ministers. The business of the State was divided into a number of departments, each of them being under a Superintendent. In one passage Chānakya speaks of eighteen departments (aṣṭādaśa tīrthāḥ),² which probably refers only to the more important departments. In his actual treatment of the subject of administration, he mentions about thirty departments.³

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¹ Arthaśāstra, Bk. II. ch. 9.

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² Ibid. Bk. II. ch. 13. Vide also Mahābhārata, Sabhā Parva, V. 38.

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³ Ibid. Bk. II. chs. 1-36.

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One of the most important of the Government departments was that of Accounts. It was under a Superintendent who appointed a number of capable accountants (gāṇanika), sub-accountants (saṅkhyāyaka), totalisers (nīvī-grāhaka) and coin-examiners (rūpa-darśaka) to carry on the work. It was the duty of the Superintendent to keep the account-books in proper order, and to see to it that no part of the State finances was misappropriated or misapplied. He received accounts from the officials of all departments and had them properly audited.¹

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¹ Arthaśāstra, Bk. II. ch. 7. The accounts were to be regularly submitted in the month of Āshādha, and if the officials failed to submit them in proper time, they were to be fined.

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It was the duty of the Superintendent of the Treasury to admit into the store-house gems and pearls as well as various other articles, whether of superior or inferior value, such as corals, fragrant substances, skins, woollen fabrics, cotton fabrics, and silk fabrics. He also received and kept accounts of agricultural produce, taxes, incomes derived from commercial operations, exchange realisations, presents, arrears of revenue, etc. It was his duty to acquaint himself with the values, qualities, and uses of all kinds of articles, and to take proper steps for the preservation of things kept in the store-house. The Superintendent was expected to regulate the consumption of stores in such a way that one-half might always be kept as a reserve for emergencies. He had also to replace old things by new.

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The Superintendent of Mines attended to the actual condition of the mines which were being worked, as well as to exploration work in connection with the discovery of new mines. He had to ascertain the richness and the value of ores. It was also his business to attend to the collection of diamonds, precious stones, pearls, corals and conch-shells, and the regulation of the commerce in those commodities.¹

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¹ Various kinds of pearls were known in those early times, e.g. tāmraparṇika, pāṇḍyakavātaka, pāśikya, kauleya, chaurneya, māhendra, kārdamika, srotaseya, hrādīya, and haimavata. Gems were also of many kinds. Vide Arthaśāstra, Bk. II. ch. 11, and Yukti-Kalpataru.

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The Superintendent of Metals and Metallic Manufactures supervised the manufacture of such metals as bell-metal, and sulphate of arsenic, and the production of articles of merchandise from various kinds of metals.

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The Superintendent of the Mint supervised the coining of various denominations of silver and copper coins. It was his business to regulate the currency as a medium of exchange for purposes of trade and also as a legal tender.

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It was the duty of the Superintendent of Commerce to acquaint himself with the demand for, and supply of, commodities, and the rise and fall of prices. He also made it his business to see to it that articles of merchandise were sent to profitable markets.²

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² See post, Ch. XVIII. for further details.

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The Superintendent of Forests attended to the collection of forest produce by employing suitable men for the work, and fixed the dues that were to be paid by people for making use of forests for various purposes.

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The Superintendent of the Armoury looked to the manufacture of weapons and other instruments used in battle, or in the construction and defence of forts, or in the destruction of the enemy’s forts. He had also to ascertain the need for, and the supply of, all kinds of weapons, their application, wear and tear, decay and loss. He had to keep everything in its proper place and always ready for use.

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The Superintendent of Weights and Measures had weights and measures of various kinds manufactured,¹ as well as balances of many descriptions. He also took steps to prevent the use of false weights and balances. Another Superintendent looked after the instruments used for measuring space and time.

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¹ Weights were made of iron or stone or such other material as does not contract in cold or expand in heat. Vide Arthaśāstra, Bk. II. ch. 19.

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The Superintendent of Tolls had toll-houses erected near the city gates, and supervised the work of the toll-collectors, who had the duty of entering in their books the names of merchants, the place of origin of their merchandise, the quality and value of their goods, the amount payable as toll on each article, and the presence or absence of seal-marks.

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The Superintendent of Shipping looked after navigation on the sea, rivers, and lakes. It was his duty to prevent piracy and to keep the water-ways open and safe for merchant shipping. Irrigation formed the charge of another Superintendent.

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The Superintendents of Agriculture and Weaving supervised the work of their respective departments. The Superintendents of elephants, horses, and cows attended to the health and breed of those animals. The Superintendent of chariots looked to the construction of these vehicles for military as well as ordinary purposes. The Superintendent of pass-ports issued permits to people desirous of entering or leaving the city. The department of spirituous liquors, the slaughter-house, and some other minor departments were also each under a Superintendent.

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The Sukranīti mentions some other supervising officers, such as Superintendents of charities and religious institutions. These officers exercised a sort of general supervision over all institutions established for the promotion of religion and charity, and it was their duty to see to it that the funds provided for such objects were properly applied.

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The most important of the civil administrative departments was that of the Police. The duty of the Police was two-fold; to prevent the commission of crimes and to bring the offenders to justice. In pursuance of the first object, they kept an eye on all suspicious characters. When a theft occurred, and the police officers failed to trace and catch the thief, they had to make good the loss. Gautama says: "Having recovered property stolen by thieves, he (the King) shall return it to the owner; or (if the property is not recovered) he (the King) shall pay (its value) out of his treasury."¹ The Agni Purāna says: "The King should pay to the owner the price of an article stolen by a thief, and re-imburse himself out of the salaries of police officers.”¹ This wise regulation must have contributed in no small measure to the efficiency of the police service.

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¹ Gautama, X. 46-47. Cf. also Āpastamba and Vishnu.

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¹ Agni Purāna, Ch. CCXXII.

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Allied with the Police Department was the Intelligence Department, which seems to have been under the direct control of one of the Ministers, usually the Collector-general. The ‘reporters’ helped the police in detecting criminals. They also gave the Ministers information regarding the loyal or disloyal feelings of the people, and kept them acquainted with the conduct of Government officials. They apprised the Ministers of the doings of foreign kings and of their intrigues within the kingdom. They were sometimes sent to foreign countries to win over the disaffected people. The ‘reporters’ worked under various disguises,—as recluses, ascetics, desperadoes, buffoons, commercial travellers, physicians, musicians, idiots, and lunatics.²

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² Chānakya says : “Merchant spies inside the forts, saints and ascetics in the suburbs, cultivators and recluses in the country parts; herdsmen near the boundaries of the country; forest-dwellers, śramaṇas, and chiefs of wild tribes in forests shall be stationed to watch the movements of enemies. All such spies must be very quick in the despatch of business.” Arthaśāstra, Bk. II. ch. 13. And “Spies set up by foreign kings shall be found out by local spies.” Ibid.

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It is an astonishing fact that although these ‘reporters’ performed duties of a mean and despicable nature, they were generally honest and truthful. But Chānakya warns Ministers against putting implicit faith in their reports. “When the information,” says he, “derived from three independent sources is the same, then it shall be held reliable. If the sources differ, the ‘reporters’ concerned shall be either punished or dismissed.” ¹

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¹ Arthaśāstra, Bk. II. ch. 13.

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The ‘reporters’ were, in fact, the eyes and ears of the executive government. Megasthenes seems to refer to this class of officers when he says, “The sixth consists of overseers, to whom is assigned the duty of watching all that goes on, and making reports secretly to the King. Some are entrusted with the inspection of the city, and others with that of the army. . . . The ablest and most trustworthy men are appointed to fill these offices.” ²

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² Megasthenes (McCrindle), Fragment XXVIII.

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There were clerks (lekhakāḥ), messengers, and other inferior officers in each department. Though there was a Superintendent at the head of each department, the final control of the work of the department was vested in a Committee of three, four, or five men. Chānakya says: “The departments should be under the control of many chiefs (bahu-mukhya).” The Sukranīti offers the following advice: “Each department should be under the control of three persons.” ³ Megasthenes tells us that each of the departments was under the charge of a Committee of five men. In addition to these, a class of inspecting officers or directors (pradeṣṭāraḥ)¹ was sometimes appointed to supervise the work of all departments and to bring the work of each department into line with that of the others.

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³ Ch. II. sl. 109.

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¹ Arthaśāstra, Bk. II. ch. 9.

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Some care, it seems, was taken in selecting officers of government. They were usually appointed in view of their general qualifications as well as their fitness for the particular kinds of work they were expected to perform. The Agni Purāṇa says: “ Virtuous men should be employed in work which requires a high degree of moral culture, while men of valour should be appointed in the army. Intelligent men should be employed where the revenue of the State is concerned, while for all kinds of work the King should select men who are above corruption.”² Officers were at first appointed on probation, and after they had gone through a period of apprenticeship, they were made permanent.³ Once in the service, they rose step by step as they showed competency in their work, until the ablest and most devoted among them reached the highest rungs of the ladder.⁴ This system of a trained bureaucracy for the details of administrative work must have contributed largely to the efficiency of the central government.

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² Agni Purāṇa, Ch. CCXX.

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³ Śukranīti, Ch. I. śl. 112.

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⁴ Śukranīti, Ch. I. śl. 115.

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The capacities and characters of individual officers, of course, varied. While many officers were devoted to the interests of the State, there were others who had to be kept on the path of duty by a strict system of supervision and control. The subordinate officers of the revenue and financial departments, in particular, did not enjoy much reputation for honesty. Chānakya observes, “ Just as it is impossible not to taste the honey or the poison that is below the tongue, so it is impossible for a King’s revenue-officer to refrain from tasting even a little of the royal revenue.” The fact, however, that the administration was so efficient shows that the State was able to command the services of a large number of competent and honest officers.

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The officers of government were remunerated on a liberal scale, so that, being above want and temptation, they might exert themselves in the performance of their duties. Chānakya lays down the following scale of salaries : The Preceptor, the High Priest, the Royal Teacher, the Prime Minister, the Commander-in-Chief, the Crown Prince, the Queen-mother, the Queen-consort,—48,000 panas each (per annum) ; the Superintendents of the city gates and the palace, the Chief of the Police, the Collector-general, the Treasurer-general,—24,000 each ; the princes, the mothers of princes, the chief officer of the city, the judges, the heads of departments, the Members of Council, the prefect of police, the chief officers of boundaries,—12,000 each ; the leaders of corporations, the Superintendents of horses and elephants, and inspecting officers,—8,000 each; the Superintendents of infantry, cavalry, chariots, and the forest rangers,—4,000 each, and so on.¹ The salaries were paid either in cash or in kind, or partly in cash and partly in kind. Sometimes grants of lands were made to State officials as a reward for their services. After a long period of service, officials became entitled to pensions,² and if they died while in the service of the State, the members of their families received subsistence allowances.³

Linked texts (8)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Gautamadharmasūtra — Gautama (dharmasūtrakāra), Sanskrit
Agnipurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Vaiṣṇava Dharmaśāstra — Viṣṇu, Sanskrit
Āpastambadharmasūtra — Āpastamba, Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Ἰνδικά — Μεγασθένης, Ancient Greek
Nītivākyāmṛta — Somadevasūri, Sanskrit