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Public Administration in Ancient India c22: Chapter XIX: Religion

Public Administration in Ancient India c22

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English

Chapter XIX: Religion

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The Sanskrit word ‘dharma’ is usually rendered into English by ‘religion.’ But the two words are not exactly the same in meaning. The essence of religion is creed; of dharma, conduct. Thus ‘dharma’ is wider in its signification than religion. It includes the ideas of virtue, piety, duty, and law. Somadeva Sūri, in his Nītivākyāmrita, defines ‘dharma’ as that which promotes the greatest good of society.¹

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¹ Nītivākyāmrita, Ch. 1. Prof. Rhys Davids defines ‘dharma’ as “what it behoves a man of right feeling to do—or, on the other hand, what a man of sense will naturally hold.” Buddhist India. The Mitāksharā mentions the following six kinds of ‘dharmas’ or duties: (1) Varṇa-dharma, or duties of castes; (2) Āśrama-dharma, or duties of orders; (3) Varṇāśrama-dharma, or duties of the orders of particular castes; (4) Guṇa-dharma, or duties of persons in accordance with their qualities; (5) Nimitta-dharma, or duties on particular occasions; and (6) Sādhāraṇa-dharma, or general duties (i.e. those to be observed by all).”

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In the early Vedic times, no sharp line of distinction was drawn between the religious and the political activities of the people. Sacrificial meetings were often converted into assemblies for the discussion of matters of military, civil, and judicial interest. Gradually, however, it must have been found necessary to separate the political functions of the State from the religious concerns of the people, and the rise of the caste-system perhaps helped this process of separation.

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The connection of the State with Dharma in the Brahmanic period was of a peculiar kind. The religious rites and ceremonies, and the ethical rules of conduct, were settled and declared by the Brāhmanas. In these matters the State did not interfere. But it was the duty of the King and his officials to enforce the observance by the people of their respective duties. The King was thus the protector, but not the head, of religion.

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After Asoka’s conversion to Buddhism, it became a sort of state religion in Northern India, and that great monarch assumed a position not very far removed from the headship of the Buddhist Church. He settled disputes between members of the various orders, and even arrogated to himself to look after their private concerns. In the Kosambī Edict, Asoka instructs his high officers in these words: “The way of the church must not be quitted. Whosoever shall break the unity of the Church, whether monk or nun, from this time forth shall be compelled to wear white garments and to dwell in a place not reserved for the clergy.”[¹] He made Dharma a special department of the State, and appointed officials called Dharma-mahāmātras and Dharma-yutas to have charge of that department.¹ In Rock Edict V. Asoka says: "Now in all the long time past, officers known as the Censors of the Law of Piety never had existed, whereas such Censors were created by me when I had been consecrated thirteen years." He convoked religious assemblies from time to time, and one of the Great Buddhist Councils is believed to have been held during his reign. His officers of religion paid constant visits to different parts of the country to instruct the people in 'dharma,'² and he himself undertook tours of piety (dharma) wherein were practised "the visiting of ascetics and Brāhmanas, with liberality to them, the visiting of Elders, with largess of gold, the visiting of the people of the country, with instruction in the Law of Piety and discussion of the Law of Piety."³ Asoka, however, did not rest content with instructing his own people in 'dharma,' but adopted measures for the preaching of Buddhism in foreign countries. In Asoka's opinion, the chief conquest was the conquest by the Law of Piety, and this was won by him not only among such settlers within his own dominions as the Yonas and the Kambojas, among the Nābhāpamtis of Nābhaka, among the Bhojas and Pitinikas, among the Āndhras and Pulindas, but also in the realms of the Cholas and Pāndyas, in Ceylon, and even in such distant countries as Egypt, Cyrene, Macedonia, Epirus, and Syria.¹

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¹ Vide also the Sārnāth Edict and the Sānchī Edict.

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¹ 'Dharma-mahamātras' is translated by Mr. V. A. Smith as "superior officers charged with the supervision of the Law of Piety." He also accepts Mr. Thomas's translation of 'dharma-yutas' as "subordinate officers of religion." Vide Asoka, Rock Edicts, footnotes.

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² Before the appointment of the special officers of religion, the ordinary State officials had the duty of instructing the people in 'dharma.' In Rock Edict IV. we read: "Everywhere in my dominions the subordinate officials and the Commissioner, and the District Officer, every five years must proceed on circuit, as well for their other business, as for this special purpose, namely, to give instruction in the Law of Piety."

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³ Rock Edict VIII.

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¹ Rock Edict XIII. (Shāhbāzgarhi text). With reference to the character of this conquest Asoka says: "And again, the conquest thereby won everywhere is everywhere a conquest full of delight. Delight is found in the conquests made by the Law. That delight, however, is only a small matter. His Sacred Majesty regards as bearing much fruit only that which concerns the other world."

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This missionary work in connection with Buddhism was continued after the death of Asoka. Religious teachers, proceeding from various centres of religious influence, carried a knowledge of the doctrines and discipline to different foreign countries. The conversion of Kanishka to the Buddhist faith led to the still wider diffusion of Buddhism in Central Asia and Tibet. From these countries a knowledge of Buddhist doctrine spread to China, and, in the first century A.D., at the request of the Emperor of China, a band of Buddhist missionaries headed by Kāsyapa Mātanga was sent to that country. During the following centuries a constant communication was kept up between India and China, and Buddhism made rapid progress in the latter country. From China the religion travelled to Japan, which soon became strongly attached to Buddhism. The religion of the Buddha continued to spread, till it became the faith of a greater number of human beings than had ever before—or have since—adopted the creed of any single religion.

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After Asoka the position of the head of the church was claimed by very few—if any—monarchs of India. Kings, however, in many parts of the country, continued to lend their active support to Buddhism by constructing Vihāras and Sanghārāmas,¹ by erecting images of the Buddha, by endowing Buddhist institutions, and by holding Buddhist religious assemblies. Under the sanction of Kanishka, the third Buddhist Great Council was held, at which the teaching of the three Pitakas was arranged according to the doctrines of the various schools. King Harshavardhana assembled every year the Sramanas from all countries, and bestowed on them gifts of all kinds. He ordered the priests to carry on discussions, and himself judged of their arguments, whether they were weak or strong.² He rewarded the good and punished the wicked, degraded the evil and promoted the men of talent. He showed great reverence and honour to priests who were learned and were distinguished for purity of life; but if any one disregarded the rules of morality, him he banished from the country, and would neither see him nor listen to him.¹

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¹ At the time of Hiuen Tsiang's visit, there were 100 Sanghārāmas and 10,000 priests in Kanauj, 50 Sanghārāmas and 10,000 priests in Magadha, 100 Sanghārāmas and 20,000 priests in Mālava, and 100 Sanghārāmas and 5,000 priests in the Mahārāshtra country.

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² On one such occasion, Hiuen Tsiang "established the standard of right doctrine without gainsaying"; and after this the King persuaded him to go on a procession on an elephant attended by the great Ministers of State. Bk. IV.

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¹ Hiuen Tsiang, Buddhist Records, Bk. V.

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Once in every five years, Harshavardhana held the great assembly called the Mokṣa Mahāparishat. On such occasions he emptied his treasuries to give all away in charity. Hiuen Tsiang witnessed one of these assemblies, and he gives a beautiful description of it. The kings of twenty countries assembled with the Sramanas and Brāhmanas, the most distinguished of their country, with magistrates and soldiers. The ceremonies lasted several days. One day a golden statue of Buddha was carried in procession, attended on the left by Harshavardhana himself, dressed as Sakra and holding a precious canopy, and on the right by Kumāra-rāja, dressed as Brahmā and waving a white chāmara. Each of them had as an escort 500 war-elephants clad in armour; and in front and behind the statue of Buddha went 100 great elephants carrying musicians, who sounded the drums and raised their music. King Harsha, as he went, scattered on every side pearls and various precious substances in honour of the three objects of worship. After the feast, the men of learning assembled in the hall and discussed, in elegant language, the most abstruse subjects.²

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² Ibid.

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From about the fifth century A.D. Buddhism began to decline in India. Brahmanism, which had so far flourished side by side and in friendly relations with Buddhism, began now to receive greater encouragement at the hands of the rulers, some of whom even went the length of persecuting the more corrupt forms of the religion of the Buddha. The tenets of Jainism also became gradually more and more popular, and helped in a considerable degree to supplant the Buddhist doctrines.

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In Ceylon, Buddhism took a firmer root than in India, and remained a sort of State Religion until recent years. Many of the Kings of Ceylon claimed the headship of the Church. Devānampiya Tissa, under whom Buddhism was spread throughout the island, assumed the power to regulate the affairs of the Church. Another King, Kassapa IV., took upon himself the duty of purifying the religion and enforcing discipline among the priests by the expulsion of immoral men and the appointment of new priests in the vacant places.¹ King Parākrama Bāhu introduced unity in the offices of the church.² He also held a great trial of the priests, and unfrocked those who were found guilty of unworthy conduct. Nissamka Malla also introduced many reforms in the church organisation.³

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¹ Mahāvamsa, Ch. LII.

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² Ibid. Ch. LXXVII.

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³ Vide Epigraphia Zeylanica.

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So much about the credal side of dharma.⁴ The more important side of ‘dharma,’ as has already been remarked, consisted in right conduct. This aspect, although present in Brahmanism, became more prominent in Buddhism, and was strongly emphasised by Asoka. The true ceremonial, in Asoka's opinion, was the ceremonial of Piety—which consisted in purity of mind, gratitude, steadfastness, mastery over the senses, truthfulness of speech, toleration, liberality, proper treatment of dependents and servants, obedience to father and mother, right behaviour towards friends, comrades, relations, ascetics, and Brāhmanas, and abstention from the slaughter of living creatures.¹ It was always considered the duty of the State to offer facilities for the performance of their duties by the people. And the State itself had certain active duties to perform in the domain of ‘dharma.’ One of these was the relief of the poor, the helpless, and the afflicted. For this purpose there were almsgiving establishments and puṇyaśālās. Very often gifts of property and grants of revenues were made by the State for the support of religious teachers and learned men. With regard to such grants, Vishnu says: “He (the King) must not suffer any Brāhmana in his realm to perish through want; nor any other man leading a pious

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⁴ In Pillar Edict VI. Asoka says: “I devote my attention to all communities, for all denominations are reverenced by me with various forms of

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¹ Vide Rock Edicts IV. and VII. and other Edicts. With reference to Asoka's religious work, Prof. Rhys Davids remarks: “But how sane the grasp of things most difficult to grasp. How simple, how true, how tolerant, his view of conduct of life.”

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reverence. Nevertheless, personal adherence to one's own creed is the chief thing in my opinion.”

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life. Let him bestow landed property upon Brāhmaṇas. To those upon whom he has bestowed (land) he must give a document destined for the information of a future ruler, which must be written upon a piece of (cotton) cloth, or a copper plate, and must contain the names of his (three) immediate ancestors, a declaration of the extent of the land, and an imprecation against him who should appropriate the donation to himself, and should be signed with his own seal.”¹

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¹ Vishnu, III. 79-82. Endowment of lands or taxes granted by one King was, as a rule, maintained by his successors. In an inscription of a recent date (1204 A.D.) occurs the following passage: “The slayer of a cow or of a Brāhmaṇa may perchance find atonement in the Ganges and other holy places; but in the case of the appropriation of the possessions and goods of Brāhmaṇas, there can be no (atonement) for man.” Inscriptions from Belgaum B. (ed. by L. D. Barnett).

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Asoka appointed many high officers to superintend his establishment for the distribution of alms in Magadha as well as in the other provinces.² He also established hospitals and dispensaries, for men as well as for animals, throughout his wide dominions.³ On the roads he had banyan trees and mango-groves planted, and at every mile he caused wells to be dug and rest-houses to be erected.⁴ From numerous inscriptions we know that this kind of charitable work was continued by successive monarchs. The Gadhwā Stone Inscription of Chandragupta Gupta II., for instance, tells us that that monarch erected a perpetual almshouse for the Brāhmaṇas of a certain place.¹ The Sāñchī Stone Inscription records the gift by the same monarch of the income of a village for the support of Bhikshus. In the Bilsad Stone Pillar Inscription of Kumāragupta mention is made of the dedication of a religious almshouse of large dimensions and beautiful structure to the use of those who are eminent in respect of virtuous qualities.² According to Hiuen Tsiang, King Harshavardhana “ in all the highways of the towns and villages throughout India created hospices (puṇyaśālās) provided with food and drink, and stationed there physicians, with medicines for travellers and poor persons round about to be given without stint.”³

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² Pillar Edict VII.

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³ Rock Edict II.

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⁴ Pillar Edict VII.

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¹ Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. III.

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² Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. III.

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³ Buddhist Records, Bk. V.

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Charitable establishments in aid of ‘ dharma ’ were erected and maintained not only by the State, but also by guilds of merchants and pious individuals. In Fa Hian’s time, Kings, ministers, and people are said to have vied with each other in making gifts to the poor and to religious persons.⁴ The same benevolent spirit was observed by Hiuen Tsiang as subsisting in the seventh century. At this time the Nālanda Monastery was known as the “ charity without intermission ” monastery, where myriads of priests were entertained, and people from every part hospitably received.⁵

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⁴ Fa Hian, Ch. XI.

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⁵ Life of Hiuen Tsiang, p. 110.

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Education was another activity connected with religion. From very early times, teachers and scholars were supported by the State, either by periodical allowances or by gifts of lands, incomes of villages, and proceeds of taxes.¹ Under the patronage of Kings, famous seats of learning grew up in different parts of the country to which scholars flocked in thousands and tens of thousands. Education received a great impetus after the spread of Buddhism. Under Brahmanism education was mainly confined to the higher classes of society, but Buddhism proclaimed the equality of all mankind, and Buddhist monarchs thought it necessary to make arrangements for the instruction of the multitude.

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¹ Vide Sukranīti, Ch. II. sls. 122-123.

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The congregation of learned men at the seats of learning gave rise to Universities. The first important university of ancient times was Taksha-silā. The Jātakas speak of Taksha-silā as a great centre of learning, where the pupils were taught by teachers of world-wide fame.² At the University of Taksha-silā eighteen branches of learning were taught in separate schools, each of which was presided over by a special professor. The subjects taught there included not only philosophy, theology, and literature, but also sculpture, painting, and handicrafts. Taksha-silā continued to flourish till about the first century before Christ. In the early centuries of the Christian Era, there grew up in Berar the University of Dhanya Kataka.¹

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² Vide, for instance, the Bhīmasena Jātaka, in Cowell's Jātaka, Vol. I.

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¹ Journal of the Buddhist Text Society, Pt. IV. vol. vii.

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But the most important of the Indian Universities was that of Nālanda. The Nālanda Vihara was, according to Hiuen Tsiang, established by a King of Central India, and a long succession of Kings continued the work of building, using all the skill of the sculptor, till the whole is truly marvellous to behold."² The lands in its possession contained more than 200 villages, these having been bestowed on the monastery by Kings of many generations.³ In this university the teachers were men of conspicuous talent, solid learning, exalted eloquence, and illustrious virtue,⁴ whose fame had spread through distant regions. From morning till night the teachers and pupils engaged in continuous discussion. Learned men from different cities went there in multitudes to settle their doubts, and the streams of wisdom and knowledge spread far and wide. Hiuen Tsiang gives a detailed description of the course of studies at this university, which included both sacred and profane subjects. The pupils started with the study of the siddha-vastu (or the book of twelve chapters), and then they were instructed in the five chief Vidyās, namely, Śabda-vidyā, or the science of sounds; Śilpa-vidyā, or the science of mechanics, etc.; Cikitsā-vidyā, or the science of medicine; Hetu-vidyā, or the science of causes; and Adhyātma-vidyā, or metaphysics. The Brāhmanas also studied the four Vedas.¹

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² Hiuen Tsiang, Bk. X.

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³ Takakusu, I-Tsing, p. 65.

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⁴ Ibid.

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¹ Buddhist Records, Bk. II.

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The monastic University of Odantapuri was perhaps founded in the fifth or sixth century A.D., but it rose to fame during the reigns of the Pāla Kings of Bengal.² It had a splendid library, which was destroyed by the Mahomedans at the time of their first invasion of Bengal. Another University which was established under the patronage of the Pāla Kings was that of Vikrama-sīla. It is said that the University was composed of six colleges, and employed more than a hundred professors. There were numerous religious establishments and hostels attached to the University for the residence of monks and pupils. Vārānasi in Northern India and Kānchi in the south also flourished as seats of learning for many centuries.

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² Journal of the Buddhist Text Society, Pt. IV. vol. vii.

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