[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Polity, law and society](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity) › [The World of Courtesans](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973) › c4 # The World of Courtesans c4: 1 Courtesans in Vedic, Pauranic and Smriti Literatures The World of Courtesans c4 - **Language:** English ### 1 Courtesans in Vedic, Pauranic and Smriti Literatures ### [c4.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.2) THE HISTORY OF the courtesan in ancient India has not yet received due attention. Archaeological findings have shed a great deal of light on the highly urbanized culture of the Indus Valley people, but there is hardly any material that can definitely confirm or refute the existence of sacred prostitution in that culture. There is some likelihood that the bronze figure of the dancing girl from Mohenjodaro represents a sacred prostitute carrying out her duties within the precincts of the temple of some mother goddess and we know that this cult was quite well established is the Indus Valley culture. But again, there is hardly any actual evidence to support the view that the figurine is a sacred prostitute. ### [c4.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.3) However, the Indus Valley culture is noted for its economic prosperity and for its wealthy merchant guilds, and it is possible that rich merchants, in this as in other periods of Indian history, could afford to spend lavishly on wine and women. The luxuriant tropical atmosphere of the Indus Valley culture, its orchards, gardens, lakes, pools and canals must have provided delightful spots for lovers to meet and must also have attracted courtesans practising their seductive charms. However, it is not known whether any particular quarter was reserved in the architectural layout of the Indus Valley cities for courtesans as was the case in later times. ### [c4.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.4) Vedic culture, though based on high moral values and metaphysical speculations, did not turn its back on the pleasures of life. In the normal course of things, sound moral conduct based on chastity and the homely virtues was prescribed for women, but there is evidence to show that Vedic Indians were fond of wine and women. ### [c4.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.5) In spite of the rural bias of Vedic culture there is evidence which clearly points to the fact that prostitution existed in Rig Vedic times. The extent and form in which it was practised are disputed. It is related that girls without brothers were frequently reduced to prostitution. \*Pumshchali\* and \*mahanagni\* were probably harlots. \*Kumariputra\* or the son of an unmarried woman, and \*agru\*, the son of an unmarried girl, are exposed and attacked by animals. These instances indicate loose morals, but offer no convincing proof of the existence of prostitution. The \*Vaj. Sam.\*\[^asterisk\] recognizes prostitution as a profession by the use of such terms as \*atishkadvari\*, \*apaskadvari\*, \*atitvari\*, \*vijarjara\*. Pischel sees many references to \*hetairai\* in the \*Rig Veda\*, but his opinion has been questioned by some scholars. ### [c4.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.6) The \*Rig Veda\*, however, refers clearly to a dancing girl. For instance Ushas is likened to a dancing girl wearing embroidered garments (\*adhipesamsi\*) and baring her bosom. In the opinion of Pischel and Geldner, in other passages of the \*Rig Veda\*, especially those in which Ushas is mentioned, she possesses the character of a \*hetaira\*. ### [c4.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.7) There are certain significant words in Vedic literature which throw light on the character and function of courtesans. In the \*Rig Veda\* the Maruts are said to have become associated with the young lightning in the way a man becomes associated with a young courtesan (\*sadharani\*). \*Rama\* and \*hasra\* indicate a courtesan. \*Ayogu\* found in the list of victims in the \*Vaj. Sam.\* XXX, 5, is rendered by Weber as an unchaste woman, but according to Zimmer she is perhaps a courtesan. The \*Vaj. Sam.\* XXIII, 30, 31 and \*Tai. Sam.\*dagger VII. 4, 19, 23 refer to the illicit unions of Shudra and Arya, both male and female. Besides this, when they list the victims at the Purushamedha they mention victims whose designations mean courtesans (\*atitvari\*, \*atishkadvari\*). The female dyer, \*rajayitri\* (\*Vaj. Sam.\* XXX. 12 and \*Tai. Bra.\*\[^double-asterisk\] III. 4, 7, 1) is said to have been dedicated to sensuality. ### [c4.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.8) dagger \*Taittiriya Samhita\* \[^double-asterisk\]: \*Taittiriya Brahmana\* ### [c4.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.9) \[^asterisk\]: \*Vajasaneya Samhita\* \*Pumshchali\* was a whore who enticed men. In this connection the opinion of J. W. Hauer is worth noting. The central point of his thesis is that in the conception of the \*Vratyas\* in A.V. XV, the ascetic element of Yoga is emphasized. He maintains that they were not outcastes or one of the robber tribes. A \*Vratya\* was connected in ancient lists with \*pumshchali\* and \*magadha\*. \*Pumshchali\* according to Hauer is not an ordinary whore but a sacred prostitute. In the \*Vratya\* ceremony, music played an important part and, therefore, \*magadha\* would stand for a holy wandering musician and \*pumshchali\* is the forerunner of the later \*devadasi\*. The obscure dialogue in the \*Mahavrata\* ceremony between a prostitute and a Brahmacharin shows a religio-mythical tendency. The \*Jaimini Brahmana\* II, 404, ff., speaks of the pairing of a \*magadha\* and \*pumshchali\*. ### [c4.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.10) Sarkar understands by the term \*Gandharvagrihita\* (i.e., possessed by a Gandharva) the beginning of the later practice of a formal or nominal marriage of a courtesan to some deity or woodland spirit. As a matter of fact, in the \*Atharva Veda\* women are believed to have been possessed or enjoyed by the Gandharvas apparently in the course of village dances and music. According to Sarkar these were the \*Gandharvagrihitas\*, and they probably anticipate the \*apsaras\* of Vedic and Pauranic tradition and the \*ganikas\* of later times. \*Dasi\*, though ordinarily a female slave, also served as a prostitute. \*Dasa\* in the \*Rig Veda\* is primarily an enemy and secondarily a slave, but \*dasi\* is a slave girl from the \*Atharva Veda\* onwards. This might indicate that the first conquered slaves were \*dasa\* women. In the later \*Samhitas\* she is a \*Shudra\*, which is probably an ethnological term. The early \*Brahmanas\* associate \*dasis\* and \*Shudras\* with the \*rishis\*, and \*dasiputras\* or sons of slave women were often assigned the same position as other \*rishis\* or teachers. ### [c4.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.11) That a certain ritual significance was attached to courtesans is evident from the elaborate ritual described in the \*Sankhayana Aranyaka\*. In the ceremony of \*Mahavrata\* which marked the commencement of the year in the winter solstice, the \*hotri\* was provided with a swing with two forked poles, a cross-bar and a strong cord of \*munja\* grass. The \*udgatri\* sat on a seat of \*munja\* grass and the \*adhvaryu\* stood on a \*munja\* bundle. The other priests sat on small mats. There was a lute and a variety of other musical instruments, including drums, and the maidens who were to dance were provided with water jugs. A horn and a chariot were kept ready and a bow and three arrows were reserved for use by a king or a distinguished archer. The target was a round skin. Behind the \*agnidhra\* was a hole covered with the skin of the sacrificial animal and it was beaten with the tail of the sacrificial animal. After due ceremony the swing was erected and the \*hotri\* mounted it. ### [c4.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.12) Then with the chanting of the \*Mahavrata Saman\*, there began the playing of instruments, the beating of drums and the uttering of loud cries. Maidens with water pitchers danced and sang joyfully. From the chariot the king shot the three arrows at the hide. At the end the drums were split up. The maidens put down the jars on the altar and the ceremony came to an end. Keith has analyzed the symbolism of the \*Mahavrata\*. The ceremony according to him is a solar symbol and this premise is supported by the sun-bird-shaped altar and the chariot, both signifying the sun. The drums, the other musical instruments, and the dance express the popular nature of the ritual. The performance was accompanied by a running commentary of praise and criticism by two persons selected for that purpose This was probably a priestly refinement as all the versions call it a dialogue between a Brahmacharin and a prostitute. This was calculated to promote the fertility of beings and the earth and is referred to in the \*Aitareya Aranyaka\* as the sexual union of beings (\*bhutanam cha maithunam\*). The presence of the horn also supports this view. The women dancing and then pouring water into the fire perform a rite which is essentially a rain-spell, and the king shooting arrows at the dried skin symbolizes the piercing of the sky to bring down rain. Sarkar suggests that the \*Mahavrata\* may have been the prototype of the \*hallisaka\* and \*latarasaka\* which were suited for courtship in polite circles, and of the more vulgar Holi and Rasa. But he thinks that the inclusion of martial features of the \*Mahavrata\* and the sort of drumming and dancing described point to some Dravido-Kolarian affinities to seasonal orgies and licentiousness. ### [c4.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.13) The \*Rig Veda\* mentions the present of slave girls to \*rishis\* by kings. Trasadasyu is said to have given to Sobhari-Kanva fifty such brides. Along with the gift of cattle, \*vadhu\* (bride) slaves were included, while chariots are described as full of slave girls. Their number did not decrease in the \*Brahmana\* and \*Upanishadic\* periods, for the \*Shatapatha Brahmana\* speaks of 400 maids (\*anuchari\*) and in the \*Upanishads\* the king is said to have been attended by five hundred women carrying perfumed powder, etc. ### [c4.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.14) It is not definitely stated in Vedic literature whether slave women were classed with prostitutes as such, but there are instances where slave girls were forced to lead a life of shame and did not mind offering love in exchange for money. In a sense, some of them could be classed as demimonde. In later literature, the term \*dasi\* came to indicate a low class of prostitutes. ### [c4.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.15) In the sexual life of the Vedic people certain institutions seem to have played an important part, the \*samana\* being one such institution where free love seems to have been encouraged. In the \*samana\* which was held during tournaments, women were present and they seemed specially attracted to chariot-racing. They spent whole nights wooing their lovers and dispersed at dawn. Mothers also attended the \*samana\* to help the lovers adorn themselves and Sarkar suggests that Indrani was worshipped there. The \*samana\* was, as a matter of fact, a convivial gathering of young boys and girls. Here they met, played and made love, perhaps as a preliminary to marriage. One is constrained to agree with Pischel that the \*samana\* was "a general popular festivity to which women went to enjoy themselves—young women and elderly women sought there to find a husband, and courtesans to make profit of the occasion". ### [c4.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.16) The \*goshthi\* is another well known institution of ancient India in which highly cultured members of society met and discussed questions relating to the various arts. They listened to music and enjoyed the company of courtesans. In Vedic literature, however, a \*goshtha\* denotes a spacious cowstall where a whole clan kept their cattle. The \*goshtha\* of the Bharata clan conveys a similar meaning. Geldner interprets it as a grazing ground, but Whitney and Bloomfield's interpretation of \*goshtha\* as a stall or stable is more appropriate. In the \*Aitareya Brahmana\* the cattle of the Bharatas are said to have been in the \*goshtha\* in the evening, and this could only mean a stall which was the common property of the whole clan. As observed by Sarkar, "It is thus very probable that the gradually more and more specialized social association and unit of the 'gosthi', often mentioned later, in Buddhist and classical literature, grew out of the merry clan-gatherings at the 'gostha' in the evening after the day's toil and adventures in the fields and pastures." ### [c4.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.17) The Vedic \*sabha\* usually connotes an assembly as well as the hall where it met, and though there seem to have been several types of \*sabha\*, it is possible that the same \*sabha\* served multiple functions. It is also reasonable to suppose that with the increasing complexity of functions, the \*sabha\* divided itself into several correlated institutions also called \*sabhas\*. For instance, gambling from the very beginning was closely associated with the \*sabha\*. This might perhaps have meant the growth of a spacious gambling hall and it would have left other members free to perform more serious duties. In some passages in the later \*Samhitas\*, the \*sabha\* evidently refers to a sort of drawing room of a private house. One might read in \*sabhavati yosha\* of the \*Rig Veda\*, a reference in this particular context to women visiting a \*sabha\* hall. If this interpretation is correct. \*sabhavati yosha\* may have meant a courtesan. Bearing in mind the pejorative sense of the word \*sabha\* as a place where gamblers gathered, the presence of courtesans there is probable for in later times gambling, drinking and prostitution went hand in hand. ### [c4.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.18) Sarkar observes: ### [c4.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.19) The 'sabha' in its wider sense must have been a large edifice with some pretentions to architecture; apart from the altar and pillars, there must have been more or less suitable structural arrangements for the transaction of ### [c4.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.20) judicial, commercial and political business, and reception of courtly, well-born, wealthy persons and kings; and the complexity of the structure must have been greater where the same building was used for the other 'sabha'-ic functions,—gambling, merriment, social intercourse, debates and contests Probably when the social and festive branch of the 'sabha' became separated it merged with the natural clan-gatherings at the 'gostha,' and led to the formation of the later 'gosthi,' whose functions were pre-eminently social and pleasurable. ### [c4.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.21) From the above references, which at times are difficult to interpret, it is clear that even in Vedic times there were courtesans tempting their lovers, perhaps depriving the rich Aryans of a part of their possession in cattle and gold. One would have liked to know more about the venue of their profession, and the nature of their clientele. The coquettishness of the courtesans is referred to, but nothing is known of their subtle technique of extorting money from their lovers and of their proficiency in arts other than music and dance Vedic courtesans must have frequented festivals and other convivial gatherings as courtesans did in later historical periods and there is evidence to show that perhaps they visited the \*samana\*. There also seem to be references to some sort of sacred prostitution, but it is not known how far it was practised. ### [c4.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.22) In the epics and \*Puranas\*, the institution of the courtesan is described as having a legal status and many a story is told of its origin. It is related in the \*Shambhava Upaparvan\* of the \*Adi Parva\* of the \*Mahabharata\* that the blind seer Dirghatamas, a passionate lover, made love to his wife in any manner he chose. The other sages were incensed by his behaviour. As Dirghatamas's wife wanted to leave him, he laid down the following law about the relationship between man and woman. "From this day on, the course of law in the world is laid down by me. One husband is for the woman the first thing and the last (\*parayana\*) as long as she lives. Whether he be dead or alive, she shall have no other man. But if a wife goes to another man, then unfailingly she sinks out of her caste. And for unwedded women, too, it is from today a crime leading to loss of caste. But if copulation does come about, then all men must give money; the women withal are not to have any profit from the pleasure, but it shall ever be dishonour and shame for them." ### [c4.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.23) The \*Matsya Purana\* is, however, more explicit about the origin and conduct of courtesans. It is related that once Brahma asked Shiva whether he had any knowledge of the rules prescribed for the conduct of prostitutes (\*panyastri\*). In this connection Shiva related to Brahma the story of Krishna and his sixteen thousand \*gopis\*. Once it so happened that in the spring, amidst the songs of \*koels\* and the humming of black bees, the wives of Krishna sat on the bank of a lotus-pond enjoying a wine party (\*apana-goshthi\*). There they became enamoured of \*Shamba\* who happened to be passing by, and for their waywardness Krishna cursed them with rape by robbers, and a state of slavery from which they would only be released by the \*rishi\* Dalbhya. Later, when Krishna was killed by the Abhira robbers, his sixteen thousand wives were carried away by them and forced to lead a life of shame. When they encountered the sage Dalbhya, they said "Sir, we have been forcibly raped by the robbers and have lost our virtue. Please tell us why we have been reduced to lead a life of shame." When they asked him what the rightful conduct for courtesans was, Dalbhya replied with another story ### [c4.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.24) Once while the daughters of Hutasana were playing in the Manasa lake, Narada came there by accident. The girls, without even a polite salutation, asked him how they could win Narayana as their husband. Narada, as the spokesman of the Brahmans, replied that they could obtain their heart's desire by giving away a couple of beds with gold furnishings on the twelfth day of the second half of the two spring months. But in revenge for their discourtesy, he placed a curse upon them that they would be raped and forced to take to prostitution. Krishna's wives were Hutasana's daughters in their former birth. ### [c4.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.25) Dalbhya apparently enjoyed storytelling for he narrated yet another story about the origin and functions of prostitutes. According to him, in the war between the \*Devas\* and \*Asuras\* innumerable demons lost their lives, and their women-folk were raped and married to robbers. Indra then advised the fallen women to work as prostitutes in the king's palace or in the service of temples (\*devakula\*) so that the kings and princes would become their patrons. Those who visited them with fees (\*shulka\*) would alone receive their attention The girls were advised to offer to the Brahmans cattle, grain and gold on auspicious days. On the Sundays falling on the \*Hasta\*, \*Pushya\* or \*Punarvasu\* \*nakshtras\*, they were expected to bathe themselves with perfumed water and worship Kama touching various parts of the body including the organs of sex. After that the Brahmans were to be offered perfumes and even the enjoyment of their bodies. This was to continue for thirteen months and in the last month they were expected to offer the Brahmans furnished beds, costly clothes and ornaments, flowers and perfumes etc. The gifts were to be accompanied by chanting the following \*mantra\*: "O Vishnu! I do not see any difference between Kama and Kesava, as you never allow Kamala to leave you, likewise O Chief of the Gods, accept my body!" Golden images of Kama were then offered to the Brahmans. From that day onwards any Brahman visiting courtesans on a Sunday was expected to be admitted free. ### [c4.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.26) In the Gupta period still more fanciful origins of prostitution were suggested. The \*Brihatkatha Sloka Samgraha\* relates that the universal monarch Bharata took away forcibly the daughters of the Ocean with a view to marrying them all, but later he decided to take for himself only one wife. Therefore, he divided the rest into eight \*ganas\* and for each \*gana\* he appointed a head and he bestowed on her the prerogative of using an umbrella, \*chauri\* and seat (\*asana\*), and she was called a \*mahaganika\*. In the hierarchy of courtesans the \*kumbhadasi\* occupied the lowest place and the \*ganika\* the highest. ### [c4.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.27) The \*Vasudeva Hindi\* records another version of the same legend. It is said that in former times Mandalapati Bharata decided to have for himself another woman besides his wife. The feudatories, therefore, sent their daughters to him for selection, but as ill-luck would have it, all the girls came to him at the same time. The queen, seated in the palace with the king, asked him who they were. On being told the truth, the wily queen thought out a plan for warding off this calamity. She was certain that the king was bound to select one or two of them, so she threatened to leave the palace. It was then agreed that those women could serve the king in the outer court (\*bahyopasthana\*). From that day they waited upon him, holding his umbrellas and the \*chauris\*. Later they were handed over to the \*ganas\* and thus the institution of \*ganikas\* came into being. ### [c4.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.28) The Pauranic view of the origin of prostitution requires further examination (\*Br.\* 212; \*M.B\* XVI.5,135,144; 7.223-70). One view asserts that after the death of Krishna his sixteen thousand women were carried off by the Abhiras. They are stated to have been subsequently compelled to take to prostitution and in the profession they were instructed by Dalbhya Chaikitaneya. Two reasons are advanced for this state of affairs, namely, Krishna cursing his wives for their infidelity and their subsequent rape by the Abhiras, and Ashtavakra's cursing a host of Apsaras (Krishna's wives) and forcing them to become courtesans. Several probabilities are suggested by these statements: Firstly, that "organized" prostitution (under royal patronage) may have arisen as early as at the time of the Aila kings, under conditions associated with conquests and subjection Secondly, that the destructive Yadava wars of the epic age produced a repetition of similar conditions and results on a large scale. Thirdly, that there existed an intimate contact between the harems and the courtesans with the result that royal polygamy often implied patronage of prostitution Fourthly, the Brahmans were chiefly instrumental in fostering and sanctioning the profession, as is shown by the prominent part played in its development by Dalbhya Chaikitaneya and Ashtavakra, nephew of the notorious Shvetaketu who was connected with Brahmanical laxity, and was a teacher of erotics (inclusive of prostitution). All these Brahmans were, remarkably enough, Kuru-Panchala Brahmans together with the two Panchala Babhravyas similarly associated in tradition. ### [c4.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.29) A suggestion has been made by Sarkar that prostitution in India originated and developed in the Kuru-Panchala region (eastern Punjab and western U.P.). There is, however, a possibility that the Punjab and the Sindh (inhabited by the Madras and Sindhusauvirakas in the post-Vedic period) very possibly contributed to the institution of free love, including prostitution. In this connection the invective of Karna against the Madras (in the \*Mahabharata\*), though perhaps prejudiced, is a pointer to the actual state of affairs. Karna describes Shalya, the ruler of the Madras (who inhabited Sialkot, now in West Pakistan) as born of an evil country. A Brahman had informed Karna in the presence of Dhritarashtra that in the country of the Madras close relatives, friends, guests, slaves, both male and female were promiscuous and the women mixed freely with friends and strangers. Parched barley meal-gruel (\*saktumantha\*), strong drinks (\*sidhu\*) and beef formed a part of the diet of the Madras, and their meals were followed by sexual orgies. Men and women talked to each other loudly and drunken women threw off their clothes and paired without restraint like animals (\*M.B.\* VIII. 27). ### [c4.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.30) The Madras had once settled in Bahlika, though later they migrated to Sialkot They were a pleasure loving people who drank beer, rum, and grape wine and ate beef spiced with garlic, cakes (\*apupa\*) and \*kababs\* (\*mansavati\*). They danced and sang with abandon in their city halls (\*nagaragaravapreshu\*), decked themselves with garlands, and were heavily perfumed. Their music resembled the "braying of asses and the grunting of camels". The women without husbands (\*svamibhartrihata\*) were known as \*hahate\*. According to Dr. V.S. Agrawala this word conceals the Greek word \*hetara\* which stands for courtesan. ### [c4.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.31) The yearnings of a Bahlika chief (living in Kurujangala) for the woman he had left in his country are mentioned in the \*Mahabharata\*. She is described as very fair and clad in a long, fine, woollen garment. He longed to return to his land and see women with high cheek-bones, who had the corners of their eyes lengthened with realgar and their eyes stained with collyrium. Clad in deerskins these beautiful girls leapt in dancing, and ate balls of parched barley meal with butter milk (\*M.B.\* VIII. 30.1-24). ### [c4.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.32) The overall picture of the moral failings of the Madras is further enlarged by another Brahman from the Kuru-jangala country. He describes the orgies of the Madras of Shakala. On every fourteenth of the dark half of the month, drums were struck and symposial hymns (\*ghoshika-gatha\*) sung. The participants ate pork, beef, mutton, fowl, and even the flesh of a donkey of a camel They drank grape wine in the company of fair women wearing woollen wrappers, and throwing off their clothes they danced (\*M.B.\* VII. 30, 27-33). ### [c4.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.33) The \*Mahabharata\*, VIII. 30, 57-59 also records an interesting tradition about prostitution or slavery (\*bandhaki\*) in Bahlika It is said that once a virtuous woman was raped by the Aratta robbers, and she, therefore, pronounced a curse that every Aratta family would have a prostitute. Dr. Agrawala is of the opinion that the Madras represent the Indo-Greeks whose manners and customs were repugnant to the Aryans of the Kuru-Panchala country. ### [c4.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.34) The pattern of society revealed in the epics shows that while in the forests the hermits were engaged in expounding the deep mysteries of life, the towns had another culture pattern in which courtesans played no insignificant part. They enticed men of virtue, accompanied armies on the march, served the king and by their training in the arts and crafts gained for themselves an important place in society The institution of the courtesan is taken for granted in the epics, though their accomplishments are not praised sky-high as in the Kavya and prose literature of later days. The "public woman, open to the visits of all" (\*nari-prakasha sarvagamya\*) wore a red garment, a red wreath and red gold This, according to Meyer, recalled the god of death. They were never considered inauspicious, though of course they occupied a low rung in the social order. ### [c4.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.35) \*Vesya\* in the \*Mahabharata\* is considered an important adjunct of urban culture. On the eve of the Great War when both sides were ready for battle, Yudhishthira sent his greetings to these granters of delight: "My dear friend, ask after the welfare of the fair-decked, fair-clad, scented, pleasing, happy, pleasure-fraught women of the houses of joy (\*veshastriyah\*) whose glance and speech glide so easily and sweetly along (M.B. V. 30.38).” The grim and severe life of the camp was made bearable to a certain extent by the presence of the women of pleasure, and soldiers were less solitary and more gay. The army of the Pandavas, while marching to the battlefield of Kurukshetra, apparently included wagons carrying the women who offered their bodies for sale—\*Shakatahpatanveshashcha yanayugam cha sarvashah\* (\*M.B.\* V. 151, 51-58). ### [c4.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.36) The prostitutes took their place in the rear of the baggage train. It is mentioned that Duryodhana’s forces were accompanied not only by craftsmen, professional singers, spies, but also by courtesans (\*M.B.\* V. 195, 18-19). As a matter of fact, courtesans marching with the army seems to have been a common spectacle in the India of the epics. In the \*Ramayana\* (\*Ram.\* ii. 36,3) Dasharatha, when he equipped a strong army for Rama, saw to it that women who lived by their beauty also followed in its train. This practice was even adopted on more sombre occasions. For instance, when the Pandavas set out with Draupadi and the citizens meet their royal mother who had retired to the forest, the splendid royal household included in its retinue “chariots, traders’ goods and brothels” (\*M.B.\* XV. 22, 21). ### [c4.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.37) This practice continued from epic times to the medieval period. The king and princes who led hunting expeditions to the forests also visited pleasure gardens. When Duryodhana went out on a hunting and branding expedition to ranches situated deep in the forest, his entourage included the wives of the Kshatriyas, a number of burghers (along with their wives) and a lot of singers, huntsmen, and courtesans (\*M.B.\* III. 238 ff.). ### [c4.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.38) But courtesans were not only camp followers. They formed an important adjunct of urban life. It is said that Virata, after gaining a victory on the battlefield with the help of the Pandavas, asked his messenger to proclaim that young girls should come out of the city bedecking themselves. Courtesans playing musical instruments were also invited to participate in the victory celebrations (\*M.B.\* IV. 34, 17, 18). After his son’s victory Virata made similar arrangements for his reception by the young men and courtesans of the city (\*M.B.\* IV. 64, 24, 26, 29). At the consecration ceremony of Rama (\*Ram.\* II. 3, 17-18) the royal paraphernalia included a band of courtesans gathered within the second enclosure of the royal palace, and when Rama returned from his long exile, the crowd that welcomed him included courtesans (\*Ram.\* VI. 127, 1 ff.). ### [c4.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.39) King Kushika on his return to his capital after undergoing a heavy trial of patience was received by the army and the people, including courtesans (\*M.B.\* XIII. 53, 65-66). Shuka, when he came to the court of the great philosopher Janaka Videha, was taken by a minister to the third walled court of the royal chamber and there left in a pleasure grove. "To him came running up quite fifty pleasure-girls, splendidly dressed, fair-hipped, young and tender, sweet to gaze on, wearing thin red garments, decked with gleaming gold, well versed in speech and honeyed words, skilled in dance and song, smiling, gifted with the knowledge of the heart's stirrings." They washed his feet and marked him for the highest honour. They served him good food and after he had finished, they showed him the enchanting pleasure-wood. They played and they laughed and offered him a couch, but the young sage was not moved (\*M.B.\* XII. 325, 33 ff.). ### [c4.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.40) The tempting of innocent sages by young temptresses is almost a motif in the epics. It is said that the king of Anga in consultation with his ministers called the noted courtesan of the city to tempt Rishyashringa. The courtesan and her party proceeded in a well decorated boat to Vibhandaka's hermitage. When the old courtesan's daughter approached Rishyashringa, the poor recluse, not knowing who she was, offered her the comforts of the hermitage. She, however, was determined to do her worst. She gave him food, drink, flowers, and coloured garments and his passions were aroused. Then at the critical moment she left him, and he was disconsolate. In the end the courtesan led him to Lomapada. ### [c4.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.41) When Krishna visited Duryodhana on a peace mission, Duryodhana had rest houses with women prepared for him and Dhritarashtra also gave orders that along with his sons fair harlots, decked beautifully should go to meet the mighty Kesava (\*M.B.\* V. 86, 15-16). ### [c4.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.42) From the above references it is clear that as far as the epics are concerned, no stigma was attached to the association with courtesans. But the didactic part of the \*Mahabharata\* is full of invective against them. In the sphere of wickedness the courtesan is considered only some degrees lower than a king (\*M.B.\* XIII. 125, 9). The ruler is reminded that drinking halls and strumpets, gamblers, traders and mimes were to be held in check as they were harmful to the kingdom (\*M.B.\* XII 88, 14, 15) ### [c4.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.43) The condemnation of courtesans on moral grounds is, however, a common feature of the \*Smritis\* and certain \*Puranas\*. The \*Agni Purana\* (168.3), holds the eating of food offered by the ganas and courtesans (\*ganika\*) a great sin and a moral lapse. Cohabitation with mistresses (\*avaruddha\*), slave girls (\*dasi\*) and prostitutes (\*bhujishya\*) was punished by fines (\*A.P.\* 258.12). The \*Garuda Purana\* has nothing but condemnation for courtesans. ### [c4.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.44) A courtesan is a dependent even in respect of her sleep, ### [c4.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.45) the sole aim of her life being to regale the hearts of her visitors as long as they can decently bear their wine. She is a sort of perpetual smiling machine, being obliged to hammer out a horse-laugh, even with the weight of a lifelong grief, misery and futility lying heavy on her heart. Her person is sold to others for money, while she often meets a violent death. ### [c4.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.46) The \*Smritis\* make thieves and other criminals the constant companions of public women. \*Yajnavalkya\* ii. 266 enumerates as one of the four tokens by which the police could trace a criminal, that of living in a house of ill fame (\*ashuddha vasaka\*). In the list of tricksters a harlot is placed in the company of such low characters as gamblers and other goondas (Narada and \*Parashara Smritis\* 2 and 3: \*Manu\*. X. 256 ff.). \*Brih.\* XXII. 9 enjoins swift punishment to gamesters and harlots. \*Gautama\*. XXII. 27 is stern enough to lay down the rule that the slaying of a woman belonging to all merits no punishment. \*Manu\*. IV. 209 says that the Brahmans must not accept food offered by a prostitute, and he also stipulates that a deceitful harlot is to be punished with death (\*Manu\*, IX. 259). ### [c4.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.47) But the lawgivers did not all denounce the courtesans and prostitutes. They had to recognize their social status and provide them a certain degree of security. \*Yaj.\* II. 290 classifies concubines into two categories—\*avaruddha\* (one who is kept in the house and forbidden to have intercourse with any other male) and \*bhujishya\* (one who is not kept in the house but elsewhere and is in the special keeping of a person). If any other person had intercourse with them, he was to be fined fifty panas. ### [c4.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.48) \*Narada\*, XVIII, 10 expresses a more sympathetic attitude towards prostitutes. Their ornaments, being the tools of their profession, could not be confiscated. Since a prostitute's rights were protected, she was also expected to act honourably towards her clients. \*Narada\*, 18 states that if a public woman after receiving her fees, refused to grant favours to her client, she was liable to pay thrice the amount she had received (\*Yaj.\* II. 292; \*Narada\*, 18; \*Matsya\*, 227, 144-45). According to the \*Agni Purana\*, 227, 44-45, in addition to the above mentioned damages, she was forced to pay a fine to the royal treasury as well. If, however, a dispute arose between courtesans and their lovers it was settled by joint parleys between the head courtesan and the lovers. Since concubinage was a recognized social institution, the \*Smritis\* provided for the maintenance of mistresses and concubines. If the property of a dead patron was escheated to the king, the state was expected to provide for the maintenance of concubines, slaves and for the performance of the \*shraddhas\* of the deceased. This rule held good only in the case of \*avaruddha\* (mistresses). ### [c4.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.49) \*Narada\*, 78-79 provides us with further details regarding prostitution and free love. Intercourse was permitted with wanton women (\*svairini\*) who were not Brahman by caste, with prostitutes, or with female slaves or with women who were not restrained by their masters, provided they belonged to a caste lower than one's own. Intercourse with women of a superior caste was forbidden. "But when these women are kept mistresses (of a person), intercourse with them by a stranger is as much a crime as intercourse with another's wife. Such women must not be approached, though intercourse with them is not forbidden (on the ground of caste etc.), since they belong to another person." In \*Gaut.\* XXII. 27 it is said that for killing a woman who is a Brahman by birth only and who subsists by harlotry, no \*prayashchitta\* is necessary but eight handfuls of corn may be gifted. ### [c4.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.50) It is evident from the \*Puranas\* and \*Smritis\* that prostitutes constituted themselves later into a separate caste. The Mitakshara commentary on \*Yaj.\* II. 290 quotes the \*Skanda Purana\* as saying that prostitutes constitute a separate caste springing from the nymph Panchachuda and as such they did not commit any sin and did not merit punishment if they had intercourse with men of the same caste or of a superior caste, and men approaching them did not incur any penalty if they did not happen to be concubines. Men, however, who visited the latter committed sin and the \*prajapatya\* penance was prescribed for them. ### [c4.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.51) In India, women and religion are inseparable and taking advantage of this, prostitutes began playing an important part in the esoteric rites of the Tantras. They began frequenting the \*tirthas\* not with a view to gaining salvation for their lost souls but to ensnare rich merchants and bankers. At Devachakra in a kind of Mandala connected with the worship of a god (as enjoined by the Tantras), the part of Sakti or embodiment of the active power of the divinity, is played by five well-known prostitutes: \*raja-veshya\* (the king's courtesan), \*nagari\* (a courtesan living with accomplished citizens), \*gupta-veshya\* (one who followed the profession secretly), \*deva-veshya\* (temple dancer) and \*brahma-veshya\* or \*tirthaga\* who visited holy places. That \*tirthagas\* actually carried out their profession in holy places is further supported by the \*Brahma Purana\*, XL. 30-35. While describing the Ekamra Tirtha it is said that important courtesans (\*varamukhyah\*) endowed with beauty and charm lived there, and were skilled in the arts of dance and music. It is said that the holy influence of the \*tirtha\* had caused them to give up jealousy, which however, seems doubtful. ### [c4.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.52) The Vedic, epic and Smritic evidences about courtesans are terse and to the point. The heroic nature of the \*Mahabharata\* could hardly be reconciled with the softer aspects of love, and in the moral atmosphere of the \*Ramayana\* courtesans and prostitutes are dismissed as mere appendages to royal pomp and show. Similarly the \*Smritis\* are more concerned with the social and legal position of prostitutes rather than their way of life. One is, therefore, pleasantly surprised to find in the \*Harivamsa Purana\* (a compendium of the \*Mahabharata\*) some interesting information about courtesans, \*goshthis\*, \*yatras\* and the \*samaja\*, with which some of the leading characters were closely associated. ### [c4.53](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.53) \*Samaja\* in the \*Mahabharata\*, I. 134 etc. means a sort of tournament. Dhritarashtra with the concurrence of Drona announced a \*samaja\* for which the ground was cleared, a \*bali\* offered and a theatre (\*prekshagara\*) raised by the royal architects. The people provided for their own galleries and pavilions. Dhritarashtra attended the show accompanied by men and women. There was \*bali\* and music before the tournament began. A \*samaja\* was also arranged at the time of Draupadi's \*svayamvara\*. The \*samaja\* ground itself was a colourful affair, with walls, moats, doors and arched gateways. There were actors, dancers and musical instruments and the place was perfumed. The princes occupied \*manchas\*. The \*samaja\* is said to have continued for sixteen days. ### [c4.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.54) \*Samaja\* elsewhere (H.V. II. 85, 71-72) indicates a grand feast accompanied by wrestling matches. Thus Krishna held a \*samaja\* in honour of Bilvodakeshvara in which meat, savouries and sweets were served, and after the feast there was a wrestling match. In Buddhist literature it is mentioned that \*samajas\* were held on the top of a mountain. Animal sacrifice, partaking of food and drink and a great deal of merry-making were prominent features of the \*samaja\*. In the \*H.V\* II. 17, 10 Krishna in order to celebrate the Giriyajna, asked the \*gopas\* to prepare food and drink and arrange for large pots of meat and sweets. A three-day holiday was declared and the cattle to be slaughtered were brought forward The \*gopas\* and \*gopis\*, in a spirit of merry-making, consumed large quantities of food and then worshipped the mountain with perfumes, flowers and incense. ### [c4.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.55) \*Samaja\* indicated a social gathering in which music, dance, dramatic shows or tournaments played an important part Here members of different social orders, guilds etc., participated. Courtesans played an important part both as participants in the show, and also as spectators The \*H.V.\* II 30 has drawn a convincing picture of Kamsa's \*samaj-vata\*. Kamsa summoned the assembly to witness a fight between Krishna and his favourite elephant Kuvalayapida Right from the morning crowds of citizens proceeded to the stadium. Its galleries (\*manchagara\*) were painted and provided with octagonal legs; they had doors with bolts and pins There were many railings (\*sargaladvaravedikah\*), semicircular windows and well decorated comfortable seats which were provided with curtains made of fine material and decorated with flower garlands. Some of the galleries were occupied by the guilds and \*ganas\* flying their own colours and adorned by the distinguishing symbols of their professions. Naturally, the galleries (\*prekshagara\*) occupied by the inmates of the harem were a much more elaborate affair. They were gilded, inlaid with jewels and decorated with flags There one could hear the babble of tongues and the tinkling of ornaments The courtesans (\*ganika\*) occupied separate galleries covered with counterpanes. There sat the chief courtesans (\*varamukhyah\*). The galleries occupied by them were provided with luxurious seats, golden sofas, colourful carpets and flower bouquets. They were also provided with golden pitchers containing wine (\*panakumbhah\*). There were drinking booths (\*panabhumi\*) and \*pan\* baskets Then there were hundreds of galleries furnished with costly carpets and provided with latticed windows to seat the queens The \*prekshagara\* of Kamsa was altogether a splendid affair. ### [c4.56](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.56) In the ancient \*yatras\* and \*goshthis\* which attracted citizens, courtesans played an important part The \*Harivamsa\*, II, 88 gives an uninhibited picture of \*yatra\*. It is said that once the Yadavas of Dvarika decided to pay a visit to Pindaraka Tirtha situated on the seashore. In the party Krishna had his own separate retinue and each prince was accompanied by his own followers. These parties had with them thousands of courtesans whom the Yadavas had settled in Dvarika. They were just ordinary prostitutes (\*samanya\*) fit only to be played with (\*kridanaryah\*) but by their accomplishments they had attained the status of courtesans (\*veshayoshitah\*) fit for kings. (\*H. V.\* II. 88, 7-9). As a matter of fact, it is asserted that the availability of women had created such a spirit of rivalry in the crowd that there was a possibility of the Yadavas fighting among themselves to gain their favours. ### [c4.57](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.57) When the watersport started, Balarama, intoxicated with wine, sported in the ocean with his wife Revati. Krishna, however, had his traditional sixteen thousand women. Some of them simply floated holding on to the boats while others imitated birds and aquatic animals. Apart from the more important of the Yadavas, the \*goshthis\* of the princes had a wonderful time with the courtesans who sang and danced for their amusement. ### [c4.58](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.58) While this was going on, Krishna, perhaps in order to show his superiority, summoned heavenly nymphs such as Panchachuda and the nymphs of Kubera and Indra and ordered them to usher in the courtesans (\*kridayuvatyah\*), and entertain the Yadavas with dance, with vocal and instrumental music and with dramatic performances. Their perfumed garlands, fine garments, their coquettishness and smiles enchanted the Yadavas who began sporting with them in the sea. Large boats with cabins manned by expert pilots, and small sail-boats were used by the Yadavas for their sports and love games. ### [c4.59](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.59) Soon the orgies of the Yadavas redoubled (\*H.V.\* II. 89). Balarama, besmeared with sandal paste and wearing blue garments and earrings, reeled under the influence of drink and was supported in the water by his wife Revati. To please him the heavenly nymphs gave a performance. Then the courtesans wearing their costumes performed a \*Rasa\*, singing about the life of Krishna in the local dialect. Balarama was quite drunk and he and his wife also joined the dance. This encouraged Krishna and the other Yadavas to join the orgy with renewed vigour. After the dance was over the Yadavas returned to their watersport. ### [c4.60](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.60) Pitchers of wines called \*maireya\*, \*madhvisura\* and \*asava\* were allowed to float in the water. The distance that was normally maintained between the elders and youth was completely forgotten in this orgy. ### [c4.61](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.61) The intoxicated Yadavas wearing fanciful costumes and ornaments and adorning their bodies with flowers, sang and struck the water with their hands The courtesans fully participated in the revelry. At the order of Krishna they imitated the croaking of frogs and turned their clasped hands into waterspouts ### [c4.62](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.62) Seeing that the game had gone too far, the revellers left the water. They applied unguent to their bodies and at the behest of Krishna proceeded to the drinking booths. Then they ate excellent food and drank to their heart's content Meat cooked in acid fruit and pomegranate, \*sikh kabab\* roasted on spits, roasted buffalo, overflowing with hot ghee and seasoned with spices, lemon and salt was the excellent fare they enjoyed. Fat wild animals cooked according to the recipes of the \*Paurogava shastra\* delighted their palates. Strips of meat fried in ghee and seasoned with sea salt formed a side dish. Radishes seasoned with pomegranate and lime, basil leaves, asafoetida, ginger and fragrant grass served to season with the drinks. Birds roasted on spit with \*ghi\* and oil and seasoned with salt and tamarind were served with the drinks. Then there were dishes seasoned with saffron and cumin seed and salt. The sweets were cooked in \*ghee\* and moistened with buffalo milk. At the sight of all this food, the drinking stopped and the revellers fell voraciously on the vegetables, on the soups, \*conjee\*, \*dahi\*, hot milk and fruits. ### [c4.63](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4.63) After the dinner the Yadava chiefs witnessed the dance and the musical performance of the courtesans, and then the party returned to Dvarika ## Linked texts (24) - [Mahābhārata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.vyasa.16.5) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Yājñavalkyasmṛti](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.yajnavalkya.2.266) — Yājñavalkya, Sanskrit - [Gautamadharmasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.vedanga.kalpa.dharma.gautama.22.27) — Gautama (dharmasūtrakāra), Sanskrit - [Harivaṃśa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.harivamsa.2.17) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Agnipurāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana.agni.168.3) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Mānava Dharmaśāstra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.manu.4.209) — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit - [Taittirīyasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.krsnayajur*taittiriya.7.4.19) — Sanskrit - [Taittirīyabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.taittiriya.3.4.7.1) — Sanskrit - [Vājasaneyisaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.suklayajur*vajasaneyi.30.5) — Sanskrit - [Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.ramayana.valmiki.2.36.3) — Vālmīki, Sanskrit - [Brahmapurāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana.brahma) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Matsyapurāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana.matsya) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Jaiminīyabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.jaiminiya) — Sanskrit - [Bṛhatkathāślokasaṃgraha](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.brhatkatha.slokasangraha) — Budhasvāmin, Sanskrit - [Bṛhaspatismṛti](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.uddhrta.brhaspati) — Bṛhaspati, Sanskrit - [Nāradasmṛti](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.narada) — Nārada, Sanskrit - [Parāśarasmṛti](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.parasara) — Parāśara, Sanskrit - [Śāṅkhāyanāraṇyaka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.aranyaka.kausitaki) — Sanskrit - [Aitareyāraṇyaka](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.aranyaka.aitareya) — Sanskrit - [Ṛgvedasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.rg) — Sanskrit - [Atharvavedasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.atharva) — Atharvan & Aṅgiras, Sanskrit - [Skandapurāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana.skanda) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Śatapathabrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.satapatha) — Yājñavalkya & Śāṇḍilya (Vedic teacher), Sanskrit - [Vasudevahiṃḍī](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.anuyoga.epic.vasudevahindi) — Saṅghadāsagaṇi Vācaka, Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c4) · Pramāṇa