[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Polity, law and society](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity) › [The World of Courtesans](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973) › c6 # The World of Courtesans c6: 3 Courtesans in Jain Literature The World of Courtesans c6 - **Language:** English ### 3 Courtesans in Jain Literature ### [c6.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.2) IN JAIN PRAKRIT literature the pattern of life and the behaviour of courtesans are depicted in almost the same manner as in Buddhist literature, except that in later Jain literature we get more detailed information about courtesans than in Buddhist literature. One might question why Jain literature—terse, dry-as-dust, ascetic and ethical in tone—preserved such information. The answer is difficult to find. One reason for this may be the Jain writers’ love for detail. This interest in detail relates not only to the way of life they themselves followed or wanted others to follow but also to the life of the people around them. In this category came not only the kings and their nobles, but also the merchant community whose piety was the mainstay of Jainism as well as of Buddhism. ### [c6.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.3) The life of princes and noblemen and merchants because of their wealth was exceedingly luxurious and thus courtesans naturally played an important part. Consciously or unconsciously the life of its patrons left a deep impression on Jain canonical literature. Moreover, though prostitution was looked down upon by Jainism (as it was by Buddhism and Hinduism), no social stigma seems to have been attached to it, and therefore, Jainism dealt with the problem in a matter-of-fact and candid way. Some of the stories and descriptions of courtesans in the Jain canon make this point amply clear. ### [c6.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.4) The \*Jnatadharma Katha\* I lists the attainments of a highly accomplished courtesan of Champa. Her body was faultless (\*ahina\*), imbued with auspicious signs (\*lakshana\*), and marked with black painted \*tilakas\*. She had the right height, girth and weight. She was proficient in the seventy-two traditional arts, and was endowed with the sixty-four qualities necessary for a courtesan. Here "sixty-four" might mean the sixty-four arts such as music, dancing etc., or sixty-four kinds of sexual and erotic poses and embraces. She had also an expert knowledge of the twenty-nine special qualities, the thirty-one kinds of \*ratigunas\* (sexual poses) and the thirty-two ways of treating men (\*purushopachara\*). She aroused slumbering passions by her youthful beauty. She was also a linguist, conversant with eighteen regional languages. She was fond of music and an expert dancer. She was graceful, witty and sweet in her conversation and a strict observer of etiquette. Her lovely breasts, her body, hands and legs were all seductive. Her fees were a thousand a day. The king granted her the special privilege of using the umbrella (\*chhatra\*), \*chauri\* and fan, and she always travelled in a covered wagon (\*karniratha\*) She commanded and patronized a thousand courtesans. According to the \*Sutrakritanga churni\* courtesans were well-versed in \*Vaisika\* (a section of the science of erotics) which is exclusively devoted to the problems of courtesans The commentary mentions that when Dattaka was cheated by a courtesan, he refused to make love to another courtesan in spite of all the blandishments sanctioned by the science of erotics. ### [c6.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.5) The \*Brihatkalpa Sutra Bha\*, refers to a picture gallery run by a courtesan. This reminds us of a similar gallery started by Amrapali Here the story is about a courtesan well-versed in the sixty-four arts, who once commissioned the portraits of all kinds of men of different trades and professions as well as the methods of assuaging their fury when they were angry. Whosoever visited her was taken to the gallery and was given a sort of psychological test before she agreed to consort with him. ### [c6.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.6) Elsewhere in the \*Jnatadharma\* (III. 51-52) it is mentioned that the courtesan Devadatta of Champa used to go on picnics with her rich clients. With flowers and perfumes and exotic food they proceeded to the Nanda lake and set up a temporary camp (\*thunamandavam\*) not far from the lake. Mounting the chariot with the courtesan Devadatta, they proceeded to the garden and sported in the lake, enjoyed the food and perfumes they had brought with them and slept with her, and in the afternoon they walked arm in arm with Devadatta and enjoyed the beauty of the garden. ### [c6.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.7) In Jain literature we often meet with courtesans of a lofty character who belie the usual notions about the lust and greed of ordinary prostitutes. Kosa, a famous courtesan of Pataliputra loved Sthulabhadra, and after his retirement from worldly life she refused to consort with anybody. When Sthulabhadra (as a monk) returned to Pataliputra, she listened to his sermons and became a \*shravika\*. She, however, took the rather curious vow that she would not grant her favours to anyone except when forced to do so by the king. Similarly, Devadatta, a renowned courtesan of Ujjain, spurned the love of Achala, a rich merchant of the town because of her great love for the adventurous Muladeva. The protests of her mother were of no avail. She requested the king not to force anyone on her as she was determined to live with Muladeva alone. A \*ganika's\* position was respected by the king to such an extent that she was considered a jewel of his capital, and almost all big towns had a chief courtesan. ### [c6.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.8) According to Jain sources prostitution was so rampant in the country that Jain nuns were cautioned against it. \*Apanagrihas\* (drinking houses) and houses with markets in lanes on one or both of their sides were considered dangerous because from these houses the nuns could see the prostitutes who carried on their profession in the adjacent houses. But the greatest danger was from the young voluptuaries who visited the prostitutes. Resplendent in colourful flowers, ornaments and perfumes, they joked and laughed and manifested sexual desire in their movements. They were thus a menace to the locality. From their quarters, the nuns could see prostitutes engaged in their toilet and surrounded by unchaste women and swindlers. Their show of haughty indifference and their lascivious embraces roused the dormant passion in the nuns. Wedding \*pandals\* richly decorated, and crowds of relatives and guests also reminded them of their past. Similarly the royal procession with its pomp and show, the royal insignia and the umbrella, the \*chauri\* and other auspicious symbols and the king's army also had an emotional impact on the nuns ### [c6.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.9) The Jain nuns had to be careful in their choice of lodging during their religious tours. Among the prohibited places were guest houses (\*agamanagṛiha\*), where travellers who could find no accommodation elsewhere sought shelter. There were all kinds of riff-raff including prostitutes and pimps whose behaviour was bound to affect the morals of the nuns. ### [c6.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.10) The Jain monks had their own tale of woe as far as prostitutes were concerned. When the monks saw lascivious men and women embracing one another, and heard the sounds they made as they continued their love-play, their ascetic resolve tended to weaken. These poor monks were after all human beings and though they had given up worldly pleasures, they were tempted to listen to lascivious songs or peep surreptitiously through holes to find out what was happening inside a closed room. The monks had to fight against another potent menace Prostitutes sometimes entered their monastery and asked permission to stay there overnight. If this was allowed, they made overtures to the monks, putting them in a very difficult position. The monks at first tactfully persuaded the uninvited guests to leave, but if they failed they thought the wiser thing to do was to make a hasty retreat and quit the building. ### [c6.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.11) At times more drastic measures had to be adopted. When they were absolutely at the end of their tether because of the importunities of the prostitutes, the monks tied them up for the night and released them in the morning. But the matter did not end there. If a prostitute sued the monks before the king, they had to appear before him personally and answer the charges. The position was further complicated by the fact that there was no dearth of men and women of doubtful character who pretended that they were closely related to each other and sought shelter in the Jain monasteries. A general rule was framed that if a man was accompanied by a woman he was to be refused admission. But at times the man claimed that the woman was his sister, and if he was allowed to stay overnight, he had his pleasure with her. If his conduct was detected he was severely reprimanded and turned out. When this happened he threatened the monks with reprisals. ### [c6.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.12) In keeping with the stern ascetic principles of Jainism, the Jain canonical works warned the monks at every step to keep away from women. But as in other religions, so in Jainism, principle and practice as regards women differed considerably. The Jain \*Chhedasutras\* carefully analyzed the sexual aberrations of Jain monks and laid down rules to help them avoid pitfalls. But while the majority of monks were celibates there were quite a few black sheep who did not hesitate to drink and dally with women frequently. ### [c6.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.13) The \*Sutrakritanga\*, I. 4, 2 etc., gives a rather humorous picture of an infatuated monk in the clutches of a woman of ill repute. Taking advantage of the situation she scolded him and struck his head with her lifted foot. She teased him saying, "O, monk, if you do not want me to retain my hair, I shall get them plucked, but please do not leave me." After getting him in her clutches, she sent him on all kinds of petty errands. "Look for the bodkin to carve the bottle gourd, fetch some delicious fruit for me. Bring me wood to cook these vegetables and to light the fire at night. Paint my feet; come and rub my back; look at my clothes; bring me food and drink. Get me some perfume and a broom. Bring me a barber (to shave my head). Give me the collyrium, my ornaments, the lodhra powder (for dyeing), the lutes, and bring me the pill (to restore my youth) Bring to me \*utpalakushtha\* (\*costus speciosus\*), tagara powder (\*tabernaemontana coronaria\*) and aloes powdered with fragrant \*ushira\* (\*andropogon muricatus\*), oil for anointing and bamboo baskets to put my things in. Reach me the lip solve (\*nandichunnugaim\*). Fetch the umbrella and slippers, the knife to cut the thread, get my robes dyed blue. Give me the pot to cook the vegetables in and another to bring water in. Give me the stick with which I paint the mark on the forehead (\*tilaka-karanimanjana salagam\*), the pin to apply collyrium to the eyes and the fan that I use when it is hot. Fetch me the pincers (\*samdasagam\*) to pick the hair in my nose. Get me a comb and a ribbon to bind the hair. Reach me the looking glass; put the toothbrush near me. Fetch me the arecanut and betel, my needle and some thread, the winnowing basket and the pot for liquefying natron. Give me the vessel (for worshipping the gods) and the other water-pots. Friend, dig a privy. Buy a beaker, a drum and a ball of cloth (\*chelagolam\*) for the boy to play with. Shramana, the rainy season is at hand, look after the house and stores. Fetch the chair with woven twine (\*asandiyam\*) and wooden shoes to walk in." ### [c6.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.14) The miserable plight of a renegade monk can well be imagined from these commands of a courtesan or a mistress. There was no household object which he was not expected to get for her immediately. He was allowed no respite and was expected to carry out such mean jobs as digging a privy, looking after house and stores and providing playthings for the children. ### [c6.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.15) The necessary corollaries of prostitution in ancient India were musical soirees, clubs and pleasure trips or even religious festivals in which prostitutes and other malefactors formed a part of the crowd. One such important occasion was \*samkhadi\*, which is equivalent to the \*samajjas\* of Buddhist literature. It is mentioned in one of the sutras of \*B.K.S.B.\*, which shows that it was a fairly ancient institution. The word is derived from \*sam\*, "in large groups", and \*khada\*, "killing", i.e. the festival in which animals were slaughtered in large numbers. The \*samkhadi\* was held in the early part of the day or after sunset. It is said that a \*samkhadi\* was held near the tank Rishi Tadaga situated at Tosali (Orissa). During a pilgrimage to Kundalamentha (situated in a deep forest) the people living in the neighbourhood of Bharukachchha performed a \*samkhadi\*, and it formed a part of the ceremonies of the pilgrimage to Arbuda (Abu) or Prabhasa. The people of the Anandapura performed \*samkhadi\* every winter at a spot called Prachinavaha where the direction of the river Saraswati changed to the east. The \*samkhadi\* was not confined to only a particular religion or sect since the Buddhist, Shaiva and Bhagavata monks are said to have also participated in it and held regular disputations. ### [c6.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.16) But such \*samkhadis\*, full of fun for ordinary men and women, spelt difficulties for the Jain monks. While they camped under the trees, stray dogs stole away their unguarded pots, thieves had a good time and robbers infested the jungle, killing and plundering the people. Drunken voluptuaries in a state of sexual excitement assembled there and crowds of elephants, horses, as well as litters and palanquins which served them as means of conveyance were a constant source of distraction to the monks. Even the monks who camped outside the village in order to keep away from the maddening crowd could not escape the attention of the dogs and thieves. ### [c6.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.17) But the greatest sources of distraction and annoyance were the village gardens, where drunk voluptuaries dressed in fantastic garments gesticulated freely and sang erotic songs Men and women, whether drunk or sober, decked themselves in fine clothes and amused themselves there. In those gardens assembled the sons of rich merchants, and bankers came there riding horses and in chariots drawn by bullocks They rode in many decorated vehicles to amuse themselves in the company of their friends. The grand display of clothes, ornaments and vehicles distracted the minds of the monks. Moreover, the village was so crowded with men and women that it became almost impossible for them to move about. ### [c6.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.18) Jain canonical literature makes occasional references to goshthi. The members of the \*goshthi\* were connoisseurs of music and the arts and closely associated with courtesans. The \*Nishithasutra\* gives us some valuable information about the organization of the \*goshthis\*—information that is not found anywhere else. \*Ghada\*, the \*ghata\* of the \*Kamasutra\*, is equated here with \*goshthi\*. It was apparently managed by the following officers: \*mahattara\*, \*anumahattara\*, \*lalitasana\*, \*kaduga\* and \*dandapati\*. Apparently the \*mahattara\* was the most respectable member of the \*goshthi\* and in modern terms could be described as the president of the club. When the \*goshthi\* met, his seat was placed at the head of the assembly (\*jetthamasana dhure\*). The \*anumahattara\*, as his name indicates, was a sort of a vice-president acting as president during his absence. It is specifically mentioned that one of his duties was to answer questions put to him on the arts and on literature. In this respect he acted as the spokesman of the goshthi. The \*lalitasaniya\* made arrangements for the right kind of food and saw to it that it was served properly, and he was also in charge of the seating arrangements which were in order of precedence for the members of the \*goshthi\*. The \*goshthikas\* naturally committed many acts of omission and commission and due notice seems to have been taken of these acts by the authorities. In order to enforce discipline in the organization two officers were employed: the \*kaduga\* determined the punishment to be meted out to a \*goshthika\* and the dandapati executed it. Unfortunately the \*Nishitha\* does not specify the nature of the crimes and the punishment that was meted out, and is silent on the functions of the \*goshthi\*. But apparently, such acts of omission and commission must have been judged in the light of the proper conduct of the \*goshthis\* known as \*gotthidhamma\*. ### [c6.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.19) The cultural aspect of \*goshthi\* is emphasized in literature, and certain vignettes reveal the reverse side of the medal as well. The patronage of art and culture was no doubt an important function of the \*goshthis\*, but they also became notorious for their hard drinking, their revels, their encouragement of prostitution and also their brawls. The story of Kamalata, mentions twenty members of a \*goshthi\* who had their fill of meat and drink and with minds fixed on Kamalata wandered about in a garden at Shravasti. They believed that a Jain monk was likely to be an impediment in the way of enjoyment and they rushed to kill him, but they fell into a blind well and died. ### [c6.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.20) From another reference it is clear that the \*goshthis\* employed a number of ordinary prostitutes who satisfied the lust of its members. Unoccupied houses were used as meeting places by such voluptuaries. It is said that Mahavira in the course of his wanderings with Goshala happened to stay in an empty house. Simha, the son of the village headman, also chanced to come there with a slave girl in the employment of a \*goshthi\* (\*goshthidasi\*). He announced that if any traveller, Brahman or monk happened to be staying there, he should proceed to some other place. As he received no response from anyone, he made love to the prostitute there and then, but while leaving the place her body came in contact with that of Goshala. An alarm was raised and poor Goshala received a beating from Simha. ### [c6.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.21) In addition to gardens which were frequently visited by the \*goshthikas\* and voluptuaries, river banks also served as favourite meeting places. Some bathed there splashing the water noisily, some rowed in boats (\*konchavirasga\* or circular boat), some, after bathing, anointed their bodies, arranged their coiffures and wore rich garments, ornaments and garlands. On festival days (such as the spring festival) women sported in the water and naturally the presence of the kill-joy monks was very much resented. ### [c6.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.22) Music and dancing (the special preserve of dancing girls) were favourite forms of amusement in ancient India. For that purpose and also for dramatic shows and other forms of amusement, a theatre (\*pichchhagharmandavam\*) was sometimes erected within the palace compound. It was provided with high columns and \*vedika\*, and the hall was domed and decorated with flags and bells. It was plastered smoothly both inside and outside; the gates were decorated with \*kalashas\* and the ceiling with lotus creepers. It was also provided with an arena (\*akkhadaga\*) in the middle of which was raised a platform. Seats on the eastern side of the arena were provided for the women members of the palace, for the members of the executive on the south-east side, for the members of the middle assembly in the south and for the semi-private advisers on the south-west. Seven seats in a row on the western side were provided for the army commanders, and there were also seats for the guards on all sides. ### [c6.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.23) It is a fact worth noting that the highly luxurious society of the Gupta period which tolerated a refined sensuality was a society in which dancers, both male and female, covered their bodies. This observation is supported by the portrayal of modestly dressed figures in the Ajanta and Bagh paintings. The Jain literature also supports this view. The \*BKSB\*., IV. 4127 mentions that the danseuse (\*nartaki\*) was so decorously dressed that she had no occasion to feel embarrassed when she lifted her legs in the dance. Even the acrobatic danseuse (\*lankhika\*), as she tumbled in the arena, did not feel any kind of embarrassment for she was always quite adequately dressed. The \*Rayapaseniya Sutra\*, pp. 123-124 furnishes a very interesting description of the male and female dancers who danced at the behest of Suryabhadeva during the staging of thirty-two kinds of dances before Mahavira. The young and handsome male dancers emerged from one end of the stage wearing \*uttariyas\*, fluttering on either side tight waistbands (\*parikara\*) made of variegated stuff, tunics and other multicoloured garments. They wore simple onestringed necklaces and other ornaments. From the other end of the stage emerged an equal number of female dancers wearing \*tilaka\*, ornaments and chaplets wreathed round their coiffures and torques, and their breasts were covered with breast bands. ### [c6.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.24) It has been pointed out earlier that courtesans referred to in Jain literature were supposed to have acquired a knowledge of the seventy-two traditional arts. Naturally the list contains a large number of items which must have been learnt by men alone and it enumerates some highly specialized crafts which must have been the prerogative of artisans working in their own fields. The only purpose served by such a comprehensive list was to remind society that a cultured man or woman was expected to know as many of these arts as possible. This list contains many of the items of the sixty-four arts mentioned in the \*Kamasutra\* The following arts are mentioned: ### [c6.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.25) \*Leham\* The art of writing is divided into two subdivisions—writing of various regional scripts and writing on materials such as bark, wood, ivory, metal plates which demanded a different technique. It also includes the mode of composing letters to the master, the subordinate, the father, the son, the teacher, the disciple, the wife, the husband, the friend or the enemy. A knowledge of the defects of transcription (e.g. the undue thinness or thickness of the letters, the absence of uniformity in their sizes, the bent line and the lack of punctuation etc.) is also included in this art ### [c6.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.26) \*Ganita\* : Accounting and arithmetic and all its branches ### [c6.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.27) \*Ruvam\* : The term includes all figural arts using the medium of terracotta, stone, gold, semi-precious stones, cloth, paint etc. ### [c6.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.28) \*Nattam (nrityam)\*: A generic term for dancing with or without gestures equated with \*tandava\* by the commentator. ### [c6.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.29) \*Gayam (gitam)\*: It includes all techniques of singing. ### [c6.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.30) \*Baiyam (vaditam)\*: Instrumental music, including instruments of percussion and wind instruments, etc. ### [c6.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.31) \*Saragayam (svaragatam)\*: The knowledge of musical scales. ### [c6.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.32) \*Pukkharagayam\*: The knowledge of playing on various kinds of drums. According to the commentator it had been included as an art distinct from \*vaditam\*, as the art of playing the drum was an important branch of the science of music. ### [c6.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.33) \*Samatalam\*: The art of keeping perfect time in music ### [c6.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.34) \*Juyam\*: Apparently the term included all kinds of gambling or games of skill played for stakes. ### [c6.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.35) \*Janavayam (janavadam)\*: Apparently the art of popular conversation or ingenuity in gossiping is intended here. ### [c6.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.36) \*Pasayam (pasakam)\*: The game of dice. Apparently the art included all kinds of gambling tricks. ### [c6.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.37) \*Atthavayam\*: The game of eight square boards which may be the same as chess. ### [c6.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.38) \*Porakaccham (purakrityam)\*: It has been explained as the art of versifying at a moment's notice, known as \*shighra\* or \*ashu-kavitva\*. ### [c6.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.39) \*Dagamattiyam (udakamrittika)\*: Apparently it was the art of mixing water with earth in proper proportion before the mixture was used as a medium for making different articles. ### [c6.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.40) \*Annavihim (annavidhim)\*: The art of cooking which included the preparation of sweet and savoury dishes. ### [c6.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.41) \*Panavihim (panavidhim)\*: The rules for preparing wines and liquors. The commentator, however, explains it as the process for cleaning water of mud. It could also mean the proper and improper use of water as laid down in the Ayurveda. ### [c6.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.42) \*Vatthavihi\*: This included the modes of wearing garments and also determining new fashions in textiles and the place of their origin. ### [c6.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.43) \*Savanavihim\* (\*shayanavidhim\*): The rules regarding cots and beds. For instance, such rules determined the sizes and the materials used for the beds of kings, princes, ministers, etc. ### [c6.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.44) \*Vilevanavihim\* (\*vilepnavidhim\*). The art of making perfumes, ointments etc. It was considered a great accomplishment to study Gandhayukti, which gave the formulae for perfume-making. ### [c6.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.45) \*Ajjam\* (\*aryam\*): That art of composing Arya metres. ### [c6.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.46) \*Paheliyam\* The knowledge of riddles. New riddles could also be composed. ### [c6.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.47) \*Magahiyam\*: The knowledge of composing verses in the Magadhi metre ### [c6.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.48) \*Gaham\*: Prakrit and Apabhramsa composition ### [c6.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.49) \*Silogam\*. Composing shlokas in Anushtupa metre. ### [c6.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.50) \*Gitika\*: Knowledge of metre. ### [c6.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.51) \*Hiranya-yuktim\* and \*Suvanna-yuktim\*: The employment of wrought and unwrought gold in their proper places ### [c6.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.52) \*Churna-yukti\* The process of making powders of \*costus speclocous\* and mixing other articles with them. ### [c6.53](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.53) \*Abharanavihim\*: Rules regardnig the making and wearing of ornaments. ### [c6.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.54) \*Tarunipadhikamma\*: The ways of the allurements of womenfolk. ### [c6.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.55) \*Itthilakkhana\*, \*purisa\* The good and bad marks on men and women as laid down in the \*samudrika shastra\*. ### [c6.56](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.56) \*Hayalakkhana\*, \*gaya\*, \*gona\*, \*kukkuda\*, \*mindha\*: The science of determining the qualities of horses, elephants, bullocks, cocks and rams ### [c6.57](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.57) \*Chatta lakkhana\*, \*danda\*, \*asi\* ### [c6.58](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.58) The quality of the royal umbrella. ### [c6.59](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.59) The \*danda\* is used here in the sense of the handle of the umbrella, the goad, the bow, the standard etc. ### [c6.60](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.60) The \*asilakkhana\* included the proper measurement of swords in order to ensure favourable results. ### [c6.61](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.61) \*Manilakkhana\* This art included the expert knowledge of precious and semi-precious stones, their merits and flaws, prices, origin, etc. ### [c6.62](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.62) \*Kagani lakkhana\*: It was a special jewel of the \*chakra-\* vartin (the universal emperor) and supposed to be an antidote against poisons. ### [c6.63](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.63) \*Vatthuvijja:\* The science of architecture which included the selection of the suitable sites and materials, lists of different types of temples, civic architecture and various branches of architecture were also included ### [c6.64](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.64) \*Khandhavaramanum.\* The measurement of camp sites. The science might also have included the proper division of the army. For instance, in a well-balanced force the ratio was one chariot to one elephant, three horsemen and five men of the infantry. ### [c6.65](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.65) \*Nagaramanam\* Town planning which included laying down the proper area of a city and determining its length, breadth and division into various blocks, the layout of its roads, the site for the palace, defence walls and gates etc ### [c6.66](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.66) \*Charam, prati\* Espionage and counter-espionage. The terms have also been explained as favourable and unfavourable planetary movements. ### [c6.67](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.67) \*Vyuham and prati.\* The formation of columns and counter columns. ### [c6.68](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.68) \*Chakravyuham:\* The formation of a military column in the form of a wheel. ### [c6.69](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.69) \*Garuda vyuham:\* The formation of a military column in the form of an eagle. ### [c6.70](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.70) \*Shakata vyuham:\* The formation of a column in the form of a wagon. ### [c6.71](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.71) \*Yuddham:\* A general term for fighting The commentary, however, interprets it to mean fights of cocks and horned animals. ### [c6.72](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.72) \*Niyuddham:\* Heavy fighting or wrestling ### [c6.73](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.73) \*Yuddhatiyuddham:\* Fighting at close quarters. ### [c6.74](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.74) \*Drishti yuddham:\* Fixing one's gaze on the enemy ### [c6.75](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.75) \*Mushti yuddham:\* Boxing ### [c6.76](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.76) \*Bahu yuddham:\* A fight in which the arms of both the hands were used. ### [c6.77](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.77) \*Lata yuddham:\* Explained in the commentary thus. "as a creeper entwines the tree, in like manner a warrior entwines his opponent in war". ### [c6.78](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.78) \*Ishu Shastram:\* The science of making arrows and certain legendary missiles. ### [c6.79](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.79) \*Tsarupravadam\*: The art in which the use of the sword handle figures prominently Apparently fencing is meant here. ### [c6.80](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.80) \*Dhanurvedam\*: The science of archery ### [c6.81](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.81) \*Hiranyapaka, Suvarna\*: Wrought and unwrought gold ### [c6.82](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.82) \*Sutra Khelam\*: Playing with threads, clothes (\*vatta\*), and lotus stalks (\*nalı\*). ### [c6.83](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.83) \*Pattrachchhêdyam\*: The art of cutting designs from leaves. ### [c6.84](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.84) \*Katachchhêdyam\*: The art of making straw mats. ### [c6.85](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.85) \*Sajivam-nirjivam\*: The art of giving and taking away life. ### [c6.86](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.86) \*Sakunarutam\*: Prognostication based on the cries of birds. ### [c6.87](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6.87) A study of this list of seventy-two arts leaves one wondering whether the courtesans could ever master these arts and in particular those with which they had nothing to do and which came strictly within the purview of masculine skills. The proficiency of the courtesans in seventy-two arts is, therefore, a mere convention and is merely intended to indicate that they were highly cultured. Of the seventy-two arts, only writing or painting, sculpture, dancing and singing, playing on various kinds of musical instruments, gambling of several kinds, cooking and brewing drinks, proficiency in certain forms of literary composition, knowledge of men and women, making of ornaments and cutting designs from leaves and perhaps a few more could have been studied by the courtesans to increase their professional prestige. ## Linked texts (6) - [Sūyagaḍa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.anga.2.1.4) — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Nisīha](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.cheda.4) — Viśākhagaṇi, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Nāyādhammakahāo](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.anga.6) — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit - [Bṛhatkalpalaghubhāṣya](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.cheda.2!bhasya) — Saṅghadāsagaṇi Kṣamāśramaṇa, Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit - [Kāmasūtra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.kama.vatsyayana) — Vātsyāyana Mallanāga, Sanskrit - [Rāyapaseṇaijja](https://indike.org/pramana/in.jaina.sveta.upanga.2) — Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.chandra-1973.c6) · Pramāṇa