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Hindu Administrative Institutions c11.s8: Sec. viii. Kinds of Warfare

Hindu Administrative Institutions c11.s8

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Sec. viii. Kinds of Warfare

c11.s8.1

In regard to actual wars three kinds are generally distinguished. These are open battle (प्रकाशयुद्ध), secret battle (कूटयुद्ध) and silent battle (तूष्णीयुद्ध). The characteristics of the first are to fight in broad open daylight and at the appointed locality; of the second to threaten in one direction and assault from the other, or destroy the enemy when in trouble or by bribes; and of the third to win over the leaders of the enemy by intrigue and other means.² The latter are also known by the terms *mantrayuddha*, *vyāyāmayuddha*, and *śakaṭa yuddha*. The first is righteous warfare fought at the specified time and place. The minister, the *purohita*, astrologers and others urge the army to action by their inspiring appeal in the name of religion and country. The day before the battle the king fasts and prays to God to endow him with success. Soothsayers predict the auspicious time for the commencement of an engagement. In the field of battle where actual operations take place elephant-men fight with elephant-men, footmen with footmen, horsemen with horsemen, and chariots with chariots. This is seen in the war of the *Mahābhārata* and is also found mentioned in the Kalinga War described in the later Tamil work *Kalingattuparaṇi*. This was not a hard and fast rule. It may be that a particular force at a particular place may be deficient and at that time an elephant could be opposed by five horses or fifteen men and four horses. Three footmen are said to equal one cavalry soldier.¹ In the view of the *Kauṭalīya* that king who possesses a well disciplined force, who has removed the thorns in his path and who has secured a favourable position, and takes to fair fight,² is a veritable master of strategy.

c11.s8.2

² Arthaśāstra, Bk. vii, Sec. 6.

c11.s8.3

¹ *Agni*, ccxlii. 38.

c11.s8.4

² *Arthaśāstra*, Bk. x, Sec. 3; cf. *Śānti Parvan*, c. 10 ff.

c11.s8.5

The characteristics of a treacherous fight are to strike the enemy when confronted by other troubles, or when he is engaged with another enemy, or is otherwise in an unfavourable situation. The conquering king may buy off the traitors from the enemy's camp, pretend defeat so as to draw the enemy to a disadvantageous position and then strike the blow. He may attack him in front or from behind, by feint or stratagem. He may strike when the enemy troops are wearied from lack of sleep, or the scorching sun. He may even offer a night-battle with his elephant corps covered with cotton and leather bearings.¹ Other ways of secret warfare are also mentioned.

c11.s8.6

¹ Bk. x, Sec. 3.

c11.s8.7

‘By the display of the army, by secret contrivances, by fiery spies employed to strike the enemy engaged otherwise, by witchcraft, by proclaiming the conqueror’s association with gods, by carts, by the ornaments of elephants;

c11.s8.8

‘By inciting traitors, by herds of cattle, by setting fire to the camp, by destroying the wings and the rear of the enemy’s army, by sowing the seeds of dissension through the agency of men under the guise of servants;

c11.s8.9

‘By telling the enemy that his fort was burnt, stormed or that some one of his family, or an enemy or a wild chief rose in rebellion—by these and other means the conqueror should cause excitement to the enemy.

c11.s8.10

‘The arrow shot by an archer may or may not kill a single man, but skilful contrivance devised by wise men can kill even those who are in the womb.’²

c11.s8.11

² दण्डरूपनिषद्योगैः तोक्षणैर्व्यासक्तघातभिः । मायाभिर्दैवसंयोगैः शकटैर्हस्तिभूषणैः ॥ दूष्यप्रकोपैग्यूथैस्कन्धावारप्रदोपनैः । कोटीजघनघातैर्वा दूतव्यञ्जनभेदनैः ॥ दुर्गं दग्धं हृतं वा ते कोपः कुल्यः समुत्थितः । शत्रुराटविको वेति परस्योद्वेगमाचरेत् ॥ एकं हन्यान्न वा हन्यादिषुः क्षिप्तो धनुष्मता । प्राज्ञेन तु मतिः क्षिप्ता हन्याद्गर्भगतानपि ॥ (Arthaśāstra, Bk. x, Sec. 7, Trans.)

c11.s8.12

To these kinds of warfare Kauṭalya adds trench warfare (*khanaka*), fighting from heights (*ākāśayuddha*) and lastly siege warfare.¹

c11.s8.13

¹ Bk. vii, Sec. 10.

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