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Hindu Administrative Institutions c11.s9: Sec. ix. Army Officers

Hindu Administrative Institutions c11.s9

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Sec. ix. Army Officers

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With our imperfect sources of knowledge we cannot positively assert the relative functions of the army officers especially in Vedic India. But it is reasonable to believe that the Vedic king led the host in person to the battle-field assisted by the *senānī*—possibly a general appointed by the king. The writer in the *Cambridge History of India* suggests that ‘this officer might have been deputed to lead expeditions of too little importance to require his own intervention. There is another military official, the *grāmaṇi* who probably led in war a minor portion of the host. There was besides the *purohita* who accompanied the king to battle and seconded his efforts for victory by his prayers and spells.’²

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² *C.H.I.*, vol. i, p. 95.

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In post-Vedic days the commander-in-chief (*pradhāna senāpati*) was the important officer of the army. Usually he was assisted by a council of war who advised him on all the military arrangements of a campaign or an engagement. That this war-council was a feature of the ancient Hindu administration is seen from the *Rāmāyaṇa*³ where Rāvaṇa is said to have held a council on the eve of his battle with Rāma. The *Arthaśāstra* mentions the following duties of the commander-in-chief. He must be thoroughly versed in all kinds of tactical and strategical modes of warfare, skilful in handling weapons of war, and deciding action or inaction in the circumstances of the situation. He must also study the advantage or otherwise of the ground, the time, and the strength of his force, sow seeds of dissension among the enemy's troops. He should collect his own army engaged in different directions, order an advance or retreat and assail fortresses.¹ He must look to the discipline of the army whether in camp, or on the march, or in the engagement. Formed regiments (*vyūha*) were designated by the names of trumpets, boards, standards or flags.²

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³ *Yuddha Kāṇḍa*, vi. 16.

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¹ तदेवं सेनापतिस्सर्वयुद्धप्रहरणविद्याविनोतो हस्त्यश्वरथचर्यासंपुष्ट-श्चतुरङ्गस्य बलस्यानुष्ठानाधिष्ठानं विद्यात् । स्वभूमिं युद्धकालं प्रत्यनीकम-भिन्नभेदनं भिन्नसंधानं संहतभेदनं भिन्नवधं दुर्गवधं यावत्कालं च पश्येत् । (*Arthaśāstra*, Bk. ii, Sec. 33.)

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² तूर्यध्वजपताकाभिर्व्यूहसंज्ञाः प्रकल्पयेत् । स्थाने याने प्रहरणे सैन्यानां विनये रतः ॥ (*Ibid.*)

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Kāmandaka, the disciple of Kauṭalya, gives a categorical list of the qualifications of a commander-in-chief. He should be one of a noble family, native of the land, versed in the rules of council, in the art and laws of war, possessing energy, heroism, valour and other higher qualities, one who has a number of kith and kin besides friends, who is actuated by generosity, amiableness and large-heartedness, who is a friend of all, who evokes respect by his character and learning, who is healthy, enduring, self-confident and has a commanding personality, who is expert in the use of four-fold forces, and is familar with the movement of informants and reconnoiterers, who is skilful and competent to manage the whole force, who can read the minds of others including those of animals, who knows the routes which he is to march through, who is not dismayed by the lack of food, or drink, or by inclement weather, who can sow dissensions among the enemy's army, who is capable of protecting his camp and is equal to the occasion, and who takes to work regardless of consequences but with full hopes of fruition of his labours.¹

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¹ Chap. xviii. 26-42; cp. *Udyoga Parvan*, clvi. 7 ff.

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Whether the commander-in-chief was a permanent officer of the state is a question that arises from a careful reading of the *Udyogaparvan* of the *Mahābhārata*. We find here the meeting of the war-council of the Pāṇḍavas where the commander-in-chief (*sarvasenāpati*) was elected and sectional leaders (*senāpranetṛaḥ*), one for each *akṣauhiṇī* of troops, were appointed. Drupada, Virāṭa, Dṛṣṭadyumna, Sikhaṇḍī Sātyaki, Chekitāna and Bhīmasena were the respective leaders of the seven *akṣauhiṇīs* of the Pāṇḍava host. Yudhiṣṭhira asks the counsel as to the choice of a competent *senāpati* from among the seven leaders equal to Bhīṣma on the other side.² A debate ensues and finally Dṛṣṭadyumna the Pāñchala king was elected to be the chief leader of the entire host.³ In the same way the Kauravas had Bhīṣma elected.⁴ Kauṭalya says he is a permanent officer on a salary of forty-eight thousand *paṇas*. This only demonstrates that both methods of election and appointment continued to exist side by side.

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² *Udyoga Parvan*, cli. 3-8.

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³ *Ibid.*, ccvi. 11, 13.

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⁴ *Ibid.*, cxlv. 1 ff.

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Besides this chief officer each limb of the entire army was under the guidance of its respective leader. There were commandants of cavalry, infantry, chariots, and of elephants. The officer of horse classifies the horses in respect of age, breed, etc.; superintendent the stables, regulates their feeding, training and medical conveniences.¹ The superintendent of elephants controls elephant-forests, captures the elephants, and trains them.² The officer in charge of the chariots has to attend to their construction, their equipment, and the particular training of the chariot-fighters. The leader of the infantry on the other hand should know the strength or weakness of hereditary and other troops, and must also be familiar with different modes of fighting such as in trenches, or open battle-field, and meet sudden surprises, or attacks from heights.³

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¹ Bk. ii. Sec. 30.

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² Bk. ii, Secs. 31-32.

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³ स मौलभृतश्रेणिमित्रा मित्रटवोबलानां सारफल्गुतां विद्यात् । निम्नस्थलप्रकाशकूटखनकाशादिवा रात्रियुद्धन्यायामंच विद्यात् । आयोगमयोगं च कर्मसु । (*Arthaśāstra*, Bk. ii, Sec. 33.)

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The Kauṭalīya is not apparently definite in the use of the term *senāpati*. In one place we are introduced to an officer named *nāyaka* who is the leader of ten *senāpatis*.⁴ But in the civil list the salary of a *senāpati* is fixed at 48,000 *paṇas* and that of the *nāyaka* 12,000 *paṇas*.⁵ This shows that the *nāyaka* must be an officer very inferior in rank to the *senāpati*. Kauṭalya is not inconsistent, but probably uses the terms both in their general and technical meanings. In the general sense *senāpati* means a commander-in-chief and in the other sense it means a commander.⁶

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⁴ *Ibid.*, Bk. x, Sec. 7.

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⁵ *Ibid.*, Bk. v, Sec. 3.

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⁶ अङ्गदशकस्यैकः पतिः पदिकः ; पदिकदशकस्यैकः सेनापतिः, तद्दशकस्यैको नायक इति । Then the duties of the *nāyaka* are given. The text according to Trivandrum edition is as follows :- स तूर्यघोषध्वजपताभिः व्यूहाङ्गानां संज्ञाः स्थापयेद् अङ्गविभागे सञ्चाते स्थाने गमने व्यावर्तने प्रहरणे च । The succeeding words *समे व्यूहे* begin a separate sentence. In the Mysore edition this is taken as a continuation of

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Other army officers may be mentioned. The *pattipāla* was the leader of five or six foot-soldiers while the *gaulmika* was the head of thirty footmen. The *pattipāla* and *gaulmika* are said to be officers who supervised the watchmen especially on night duty. The *śatānīka* was the leader of a hundred footmen. Another officer named the *anuśatika* is also mentioned as the head of a hundred foot-soldiers. Apparently this is a mistake. The *anuśatika* must be an officer leading a smaller number but following the commander of the hundred soldiers. An officer of 1,000 foot-soldiers is mentioned and is called the *sāhasrika*, while the leader of 10,000 soldiers of the infantry is called the *āyudika*. Among the above-mentioned officers who are evidently infantry officers the *śatānīka* is also entrusted with the more important function of drilling soldiers in military exercises, both in the morning and in the evening. He is one who is proficient in different branches of the art of war. The leader of the cavalry and the elephant corps was known as the *nāyaka*. A *nāyaka* was generally the leader of twenty elephants or twenty horses. These officers were dressed in uniforms appropriate to their status in the army. There was a non-military officer, the *lekhaka*, besides others like the *purohita*. His function was to keep the accounts relating to the military department. He was in possession of facts and figures as to the number of soldiers in different ranks of the army, the emoluments drawn by each, the number as to discharged soldiers, and the places where

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the previous sentence; but it makes no sense in the reading. His duties are then to array the different army constituents, to collect the scattered forces, to arrange for the halt, as well for the march, retreat after the battle, and to fix the engagement. Again he was to arrange these constituents of the army by respective signs such as the trumpet sounds, flags and standards. (*Arthaśāstra*, Trivandrum edition, vol. iii, pp. 141-2.)

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these latter were engaged.¹ The fact that Sukrācārya recommends nearly 50 per cent. of the total annual expenditure of a state on the military establishment² shows that there must have been an elaborate war-office by his time and the importance of such large establishment has been well-recognized and realized by the ancient Hindus.

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¹ Śukra, ii. 140-48.

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² iv, 7. 24 ff.

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What were then the causes that led to the outbreak of wars in general in ancient India? Cattle lifting generally led to an expedition. This finds illustrated in the *Mahābhārata* where under instructions from Duryodhana, the king of Trigarthas enters the city of Virāṭa with the war music of *śankha*, *dundubhi*, and *bheri* and drives away the kine. Uttara and Bṛhannala (Arjuna in disguise) offer fight and recover the cattle.³ That this was also common in ancient South India is seen from *Porapporul Veṇbāmālai*, a classic of Tamil literature. The first chapter of the work treats of capturing of the cattle of the enemy by soldiers wearing garlands of *veṭchi*. This expedition is of two kinds, that undertaken under the orders of the ruling chieftain and that undertaken by themselves, i.e. unauthorized by the chief.⁴

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³ *Mbh.*, *Virāṭa Parvan*, ch. xxxii ff.

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⁴ மனைய தெருவிலும் தன்னற தொழியுமென்—(*Veṭchipadalam*, chap. i).

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Another occasion for war common to ancient North and South India was the refusal of girls in marriage by smaller states (குறும்புநாடு) for the conquering monarch. This is evident from the fifth and sixth chapters of the Tamil treatise. The men of these small states adorn themselves with garlands of *nocchi* and offer defence from their fortress on all sides. Here we also find siege warfare as practised in ancient South India. Again in the *Rāmāyaṇa* it is the forcible taking away of Sītā, the wife of Rāma, that led to the great war between Rāvaṇa and Rāma, and the consequent defeat and death of the former.

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Yet another occasion for war is political. When the kings of neighbouring states, dependent or independent become refractory and prove recalcitrant to the conquering monarch, the latter generally embarks on an expedition to reduce such chieftains and get possession of their kingdoms. The king rides on his chariot in an auspicious time fixed by astrologers and soothsayers. After the victory worship is offered in the temples and presents are given to the *śrotriyas* while the soldiers who contributed to the success are endowed with cultivable lands.¹ Neduṁśeḷiyan II embarked on war to repel the attacks of his neighbours who invaded his territory to conquer it.² The failure to pay tribute by vassal chieftains as in the case of the battle of Kalingam described in the *Kalingattuparani* was the basis of many a war that was fought in ancient India. Thus it is apparent that the aims of war and the causes which precipitated the conflagration were many and the ancient Indians of both North and South India showed themselves ready for the emergency.

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¹ *Porapporuḷ Veṇbāmālai*, chap. iii.

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² *Puram*, stanza 72.

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