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The Mauryan Polity c11.s3.t3: Visits to the Sambodhi and Lummini

The Mauryan Polity c11.s3.t3

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Visits to the Sambodhi and Lummini

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Possibly the same interpretation and the same value must be attached to his visits to the Sambodhi and Lummini, the latter of which he made tax-free. The inscription on the column at Rummindeī in Nepal is also contended, without much justification, in support of Aśoka's faith in Buddhism.⁴ More than 20 years ago this record was subjected to a severe and lengthy examination by that learned indologist J. F. Fleet, and the only possible conclusion to which he could arrive at was that it was only a state visit, and the remission of bali and bhāga was to commemorate his visit to the birthplace of the founder of Buddhism.¹ We need not go into the details once again which Fleet has so critically examined and arrived at the right conclusion. Suffice it to point out here that it could not have been a pious tour, for the sheer reason that a part of this tour was devoted to visit Niglīvā sacred to Konākamana, about thirteen miles north-west of Rummindeī. Thus in the same year and on the occasion of the same tour, Aśoka visited two places, one sacred to the Buddha and the other to the founder of the rival sect. The inscriptions on both these pillars, fortunately preserved to us, demonstrate that the emperor went in person, did worship and left a stone memorial behind. If one could be regarded as a pious tour, the other also must be regarded as such; what is really significant is the mention of the fact that he worshipped in both the places. To-day Aśoka could not be a follower of the Buddha and to-morrow of his rival. Therefore it is reasonable to assume that both were state visits to the holy places of the different cults, and Aśoka left memorials in commemoration of such visits.² Any other interpretation seems erroneous and misleading. Even to-day the Hindus regard these as sacred places of pilgrimage and visit them to revere the memory of an ancient saint, the Buddha.

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⁴ See for instance D. R. Bhandarkar, *Aśoka*, pp. 82-83.

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¹ J.R.A.S., 1908, p. 471-ff; cp. Ep. Ind., Vol. V, p. 162; Ind. Ant., 1905, p. 1-ff: 1914.

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² See Minor Pillar Inscriptions, Corpus, pp. 164-165.

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To crown all this comes Aśoka’s important public statement: “Thus do I attend to all classes. All sects are also honoured by me with various offerings. But which is one's own approach (or choice) is considered by me as the most essential."' His policy was clear. It was non-interference as regards choice of religious belief, but intervention to see that everything was properly accomplished. If the theory that Aśoka fostered the orthodox Buddhist *sangha* can be accepted, it is equally acceptable that he showed no less zeal in fostering the rival sect founded by Devadatta, a cousin of the Buddha. The founder of this sect was a mythological saint Konākamana, one of the previous Buddhas, according to the Pāli version of the tradition. He enlarged the *stūpa* dedicated to Konākamana and paid a state visit to it when he had been anointed twenty years.²

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² Cf. Smith, *Early His.*, p. 33; Nagāli Sāgar Pillar, *Corpus*, p. 165.

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The following points deserve notice in this connection:—

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(1) Aśoka showed equal enthusiasm in honouring the Ājīvikas. These were apparently a heterodox sect of monks whose founder was one Gośāla Maṅkhalīputta, contemporaneous with the founders of the other ascetic sects, Mahāvīra and Gautama. According to the Pāli *sūtras* Gośāla was a prominent rival of Mahāvīra and an opponent of the Buddha.³ In order to support that ascetic community 'which would seem to have, at one time, rivalled in numbers and importance the two still existing great communities of the Buddhists and Jainas' the caves of Barābar Hills were dedicated by the Emperor¹ in the same spirit with which his successor Daśaratha bestowed rock-hewn caves on Nāgārjuni Hill on the Ājīvikas.² One is at a loss to know what weight this testimony carries in the argument about Aśoka’s faith in Buddhism. Even Vallee Poussin, the eloquent advocate of the theory that Aśoka was a Buddhist, has to make the following observation in this connection: “On voit mal, en des temps moins anciens, un bouddhiste convaincu favoriser d’aussi mauvais religieux que les Ajīvikas, meme pour raison d’Etat.”³

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¹ Pillar, E. VI, *Corpus*, pp. 128-129.

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³ See Jacobi, *Kalpa sūtra* Intro., p. 1; Hoernle, *Uvāsaga-Dasāo*, II, Intro.. p. 12; Bühler, *In. Ant.*, Vol. 20, p. 362.

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¹ See Barābar Hill Inscript. and also Pillar Edict VI-VII. For the use of the term under various designations see B.M. Barua’s article ‘Ajīwika-what it means’ in the Annals of Bhandarkar Institute, Vol. VIII, Part II, pp. 183-188.

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² In. Ant., Vol. XX, p. 361f.

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³ L’Inde Aux Temps Des Mauryas, p. 126.

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(2) That the insriptions of Aśoka do not *ipso facto* suggest his proselytism to the Buddhist faith is evidenced by the fact that he equally honoured the Nigaṇṭhas or Nirgranthas who were another dissenting sect of the Hindus.⁴ We know from references in the Buddhist Piṭakas that the Nigaṇṭhas were a sect hostile to the Buddhists. It would appear that Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta, the founder of the Jaina sect, was an opponent of Gotama the Buddha and hence one of his contemporaries.⁵

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⁴ P.E. VI.

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⁵ In. Ant., Vol. 7, p. 143: also C.H.I., I, p. 160

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According to the Jaina scriptures, the Jaina clergy went by the name of Nigaṇṭhas.⁶ In the opinion of Bühler, the term in the inscriptions of Aśoka has reference to the Jaina monks and nuns.⁷ If we can believe the references in Buddhist canons, then there is strong reason for the theory that the Nirgranthas were members of the early Jaina church.¹ This position of extending the royal patronage to the Jaina sect which looked upon Buddhism as a rival faith, and which ignored it by taking no notice of it in any of its old Jaina sūtras, is irreconcilable with the theory of Aśoka being a Buddhist.²

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⁶ See Kalpasūtra, sūtra, 130.

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⁷ Ep. Ind., II, p. 272.

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¹ In. Ant., Vol. 9, p. 161.

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² See preface, p. 7 of Jacobi's ed. of the Āyāraṃga sutta, P.T.S.

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(3) Professor H. H. Wilson draws our attention to "the total omission of any allusion to Buddha himself by any of his appellations, Sugata, Tathāgata, Gautama, Sākya, or Sākyasinha, all which occur repeatedly in the Buddhist writings, both of Tibet and of Ceylon, and which the Sāranāth Buddhist inscription proves it was not unusual to allude to in the sculptured inscriptions of that religion. Neither is there any allusion to his family, or to any of his early disciples, or to any of the Bodhisatwas, who are sufficiently conspicuous in the Kahgyur and Mahawanso, nor does any hint occur of Stūpas, Vihārs, or Caityas, or of the Bodhi, or Bo tree,—everywhere else so frequently adverted to. Neither do we find anything that can be regarded as peculiarly Buddhist doctrines, for the moral duties inculcated are the same that are enjoyed by Brahmanical writings, and there is at least one duty enforced which it is very difficult to reconcile with the spirit of Buddhism; reverence for, or rather the service of (suśrusha) the Brahmans."³

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³ J.R.A.S., XII, pp. 240-1.

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(4) The last but not the least were the Brahmans who were the recipients of honour and regard from Aśoka.¹ Even the *Mahāvaṃśa* which attributes many a Buddhist building to the munificence of Aśoka,² states that Aśoka followed his father in bestowing gifts on the Brahmans. The *Rājatarangiṇī* places on record many a Brahmanical temple and even Jaina buildings to the credit of the same monarch.³ Added to this is the evidence of the *Dīpavaṃśa*⁴ which clearly makes out that the Buddhism was not his original faith. His interest in the welfare of the other castes and orders like the Ibhyas or Vaiśyas, ascetics and householders is unbounded.⁵ His alleged denunciation of rituals said to be contained in the Ninth Rock-Edict is meaningless. For, does he not say ‘se katavi cheva kho maṃgale,’ meaning that ceremonies needs be practised. What he drives at here is that mere *karma* will bear little fruit. One must aim at the substance and not at the shadow. So practice of virtues (*śiṣṭācāram*) is more fruitful. From these and other evidences it is impossible to escape the conclusion that Aśoka held catholic views about religion and was an extremely tolerant monarch. His was universal toleration regardless of sects and creeds. In fact he realised that doctrine as one of the proximate ends of the state.⁶

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¹ P.E. VI, etc. R.E. V.

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² Bk. V, p. 23.

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³ Bk. I, ch. 20. Stein, Trans.

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⁴ Bk. VI, ch. 18.

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⁵ R.E. V.

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⁶ Cf. Edmund Hardy, *Konig Aśoka*, pp. 22-23.

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The above examination leads us to the conclusion that he could not have been a Buddhist. The next question that remains to be answered is what was his religion? The following facts which are categorically stated support the theory that Aśoka’s personal faith was Brahmanical Hinduism to the very end of his days.

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(1) Aśoka encouraged exhibitions of representations of the celestials and deities peculiar to Hinduism. These are quite in tune with the recommendations of the Kauṭalīya. It may be noted that early Buddhism did not believe in idolatry but actually discarded it.

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(2) Aśoka pursued firmly the principle of religious neutrality accompanied with a spirit of universal toleration, an element foreign to the rival sects and especially the dissenting sects.¹

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¹ Cf. Kern, *Op. cit.*, p. 112.

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(3) In more than one place Aśoka has repeatedly mentioned that the reward for the practice of dharma was the enjoyment of a life of heavenly bliss. Belief in, and attainment of, heaven are foreign to the Buddhist philosophy.

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(4) Non-injury to creatures emphasised by the emperor is as much Brahmanical as the Jaina or even Buddhist. Aśoka’s *ahiṃsā* was not of the rigid type peculiar to the Jaina prescriptions. For the practice of slaughtering animals for the royal kitchen was continued. It is more in accord with the epic notions of *ahiṃsā* where it is characterised as *paramo dharmaḥ*. The recognition of this principle is admitted by the Upaniṣads and the early *Dharmasūtras* as well.²

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² Wilson, *J.R.A.S.*, XII, pp. 238-240.

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(5) Aśoka makes no mention whatsoever of the Buddhist notion of *nirvāṇa*³ and the *nirvāṇic* annihilation which is the fundamental characteristic of the Buddhist faith. In this respect the inscriptions of Aśoka do, not only, not conform to the prescriptions of the Dhammapada but differ from them widely. The keynote of the *Dhammapada* is the doctrine of *nirvāṇa*.¹ Hence the remarks of the latest writer on the subject, Vallee Poussin, can hardly be accepted: “Le bouddhisme d’Aśoka, en effect, respire l’atmosphere des textes qui, pour diverses raisons, sont consideres comme les plus archaiques, *Dhammapada*, *Suttanipāta*, (dont des morceaux sont proprement nommes a Bhabra).”² As already shown the reference to *svarga* is made in the edicts on more than one occasion. The concept of *nirvāṇa* is such as it does not lead to any enjoyment or happiness after life. But the concept of heaven does imply all this.

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³ C.H.I., I, p. 505.

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¹ P. 125.

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² See Vallee Poussin, *L’Inde Aux Temps Des Mauryas*, p. 125.

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(6) A scholar of the standing of Hultzsch who is disposed to believe Aśoka’s faith in Buddhism admits that “the lists of evil passions and dispositions do not tally with the *āsavas* and *kileśas* of the Buddhists.”³ These agree with the Hindu notions and beliefs, ‘about the reward of human actions.’

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³ *Corpus*, Intro., p. 52.

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(7) Aśoka makes a significant statement which furnishes a clue as to the profession of his faith. He says that his predecessors engaged themselves in the spreading and propagating of the *dharma* to which he wedded himself.⁴ But their efforts did not prove very much of a success in that direction. His predecessors were Candragupta and Bindusāra. There is not even a lengendary record to testify to their attachment to the Buddhism. This more than anything else goes to prove Aśoka’s faith in the *sanātana dharma* of the Hindus. At least there is no implication here of any reference to the Buddhist *dharma*. According to Fleet it is the ordinary *dharma* of the Hindu kings and he bases his conclusion on the authority of the *Mānavadharmaśāstra*.¹

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⁴ P.E. VII.

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¹ See *J.R.A.S.*, p. 491.

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(8) According to Bhandarkar, the six constituents of the True Dharma addressed to the *Saṅgha* in the Calcutta Bairāṭ Edict show that “his (Aśoka’s) mind was ravished not by the ritualistic or metaphysical elements of Buddhism, but rather by the fundamentals of that religion, or for the matter of that, any religion. He was fascinated not by any specification of rules and regulations to be observed externally and mechanically, but rather what constitutes and conduces to real inner growth.”²

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² *Aśoka*, pp. 88-89.

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(9) Next we have to consider the term Devānāmpriya, a title assumed by kings other than Aśoka as well. It was the title of Candragupta Maurya. It is contended that ‘Deva’ refers to the Jaina deity, and the title ‘beloved of the Gods’ is taken to be a profession of the Jaina faith. If this were so Aśoka’s faith in Buddhism becomes a myth, for, the term occurs in several of the Rock and Pillar Edicts. It is a title borne by Daśaratha, grandson of Aśoka.³ In fact the R.E. VII (Kālsī and Mānsehrā) shows that Aśoka’s predecessors also bore the same title. In the *Dīpavaṃśa* it is an attribute of Tissa King of Ceylon, a contemporary of Aśoka. A century later Patañjali uses it as a honorific and also in the ironical sense of a fool. But in the *Harṣacarita* Bāṇa uses it as an honorific.⁴ At the best the title does not warrant Aśoka's profession of the Buddhist faith.

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³ See Nāgarjuni Hill Cave Inscriptions.

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⁴ See Intro., *Corpus*, p. XXIX.

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