War in Ancient India c6.s6.t4: Numismatic Evidence
War in Ancient India c6.s6.t4
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Numismatic Evidence
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Examining the various coins found in India we notice some kinds of arms and armour exhibited in them. In the Persian and Macedonian types of coins¹⁷⁴ the obverse side contains a mounted horseman wearing curio, with lance in rest, pursuing two mounted men on an elephant. This is identified with Porus's pursuit on an elephant but cannot be conclusively accepted. On the reverse is one wearing a spear and a thunderbolt. The Indian types of Bactrian kings are illustrated by Appolodotus I wearing the bow and arrow and Antimachus naked to the waist wearing a trident in the right arm and perhaps a shield hanging from his left. In the face of this numismatic evidence, Baden-Powell's conjecture that the śūla was only a temple symbol and not a war weapon, falls to the ground. Moreover, it was probably the symbol of the Kushan kings, of the first century A.D., as testified to by their coins.¹⁷⁵ Again, in the numerous Indo-Scythian coins¹⁷⁶ the kings wear coats of mail, or chain armour, helmets with straight swords and lances, some standing and others on horses or elephants. There are also short curved spears, clubs, and other weapons. Some of them belonged to the second or third century B.C. or even much earlier.
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¹⁷⁴ Cambridge History of India, I, Plate I.
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¹⁷⁵ Ibid., p. 582.
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¹⁷⁶ Ibid., Plate III.
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We conclude with the words of Sir George Birdwood: ‘For variety, extent, and gorgeousness, and ethnological and artistic value, no such collection of Indian arms exists in this country (England) as that belonging to the Prince of Wales. It represents the armourer’s art in every province of India, from the rude spear of the savage Nicobar islanders to the costly, damascened, sculptured, and jewelled swords, and shields, spears, daggers and match-locks of Kashmir, Katch and Vizianagaram. The most striking object in the collection is a suit of armour made entirely of the horny scales of the Indian armadillo, or pangolin, encrusted with gold, and turquoises, and garnets.’¹⁷⁷
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¹⁷⁷ The Industrial Arts of India, pp. 171-2.
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Thus it is obvious that the artistic instinct was developed to a wonderfully high degree in ancient India of which any Indian may be proud. But this steady and onward march of Indian art and sculpture was sometimes arrested by the continuous inroads of foreigners. Even in such troublous times the arts of peace were not neglected. There was a temporary setback since the advent of the East India Company. But to-day with the growth of nationalism there is a significant awakening in this direction.
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144. The Athenian Expedition to Sicily
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The Athenian expedition to Sicily, which began in 415 B.C., was a pivotal moment in the Peloponnesian War. It was a massive undertaking, driven by the ambition of Alcibiades and the desire of the Athenian people to expand their empire. The fleet, consisting of over one hundred triremes and thousands of hoplites, set sail with high hopes of conquest. However, the expedition was plagued by poor leadership, internal political strife, and the unexpected resilience of the Syracusans.
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The initial successes of the Athenians were soon overshadowed by the arrival of the Spartan general Gylippus, who revitalized the Syracusan defense. The tide of the war turned against Athens, and the once-mighty fleet found itself trapped in the Great Harbor of Syracuse. The subsequent battles were disastrous for the Athenians, leading to the total destruction of their forces and the capture of their commanders, Nicias and Demosthenes.
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The failure of the Sicilian expedition was a catastrophic blow to Athens, both militarily and psychologically. It depleted the city's resources, decimated its manpower, and emboldened its enemies. The loss of the fleet and the army marked the beginning of the end for the Athenian Empire, as it struggled to recover from the immense losses and the shifting alliances of the Greek world. The war would continue for several more years, but the defeat in Sicily had irrevocably altered the course of the conflict.