[Pramāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/) › [Studies](https://indike.org/pramana/ins) › [Polity, law and society](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity) › [War in Ancient India](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944) › c6 # War in Ancient India c6: Chapter III: Weapons of War as Gathered from Literature War in Ancient India c6 - **Language:** English ## Contents - [c6.s1 Section II: Fire Arms](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1) — 16 parts - [c6.s2 Section III: Other Weapons](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2) — 27 parts - [c6.s3 Section IV: The Amukta Weapons](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3) — 58 parts - [c6.s4 Section V: Minor and Mystical Weapons of Warfare](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s4) — 26 parts - [c6.s5 Section VI: On Armour](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s5) — 20 parts - [c6.s6 Section VII: Arms and Armour from Sculpture](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s6) — 32 parts ### Chapter III: Weapons of War as Gathered from Literature ### [c6.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.2) BOWS AND ARROWS ### [c6.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.3) Dhanur Veda classifies the weapons of offence and defence into four—the mukta, the amukta, the muktāmukta and the yantramukta. The Nītiprakāśikā, on the other hand, divides them into three broad classes, the mukta (thrown), the amukta (not thrown), and the mantramukta (discharged by mantras).¹ The bows (dhanus) and arrows (iṣu) are the chief weapons of the mukta group. ### [c6.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.4) ¹ Nīti, II, 11-13; Cp. Agni Purāṇa, 249.2. ### [c6.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.5) It would not be out of place here to examine their characteristics and uses as recorded in the earliest literature known to the Hindus. Both in the Saṃhitās and in the Brāhmaṇas we read of bows and arrows besides the inevitable vajra of Indra, the Lord of Heaven. The very fact that our military science was named Dhanur Veda proves sufficiently clearly that the bow and arrow were the principal weapons of war in those times. It was known by different terms as śārnga, kodaṇḍa, and kārmuka. Whether these were synonyms of the same thing or were different, it is difficult to say. In the age of the Ṛg Veda Saṃhitā, it would appear from the terms iṣukṛt and iṣukāra that there existed a regular profession of arrowmaking.² The Rg Vedic smith was not only a steel-worker but also an arrow-maker. While the head of the arrow was prepared by him, the rest was finished by a guild of arrow-makers.³ ### [c6.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.6) ² R.V.I., 184, 3; Vāja. Sam. 30. 7. ### [c6.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.7) ³ See IHQ., V, p. 434 and n. on p. 435. ### [c6.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.8) It is interesting to read in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, a composition earlier than 600 B.C., how the gods fashioned an arrow.⁴ In the Upāsads of the Somayajña the gods made an arrow. Of it the point was Agni, the socket Soma, the shaft Viṣṇu, and the feathers Varuṇa. Using butter as the bow, the arrow was thrown. This enabled the piercing of citadels. Again, at the Upāsads recourse was had to four teats for milk: and this was because of the socket, the shaft, and the feathers. Further, the fore-offerings and the after-offerings were divine armour.⁵ These fore-offerings and after-offerings were to prevent rending by an arrow. Thus here we are introduced to the essential elements of an arrow, and its effective use. Again in the Rājasūya portion of the Pañcika V mention is made of weapons like the bow and the arrow, and the defensive cuirass for the body.⁶ ### [c6.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.9) ⁴ I. 25. IV, 8 (A. B. Keith). ### [c6.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.10) ⁵ I. 26. IV, 9. ### [c6.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.11) ⁶ VII. 19 (34.1). ### [c6.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.12) To turn our attention to the Kauṣitakī Brāhmaṇa in the Abhyudita sacrifice, the dakṣiṇā (fee) is a bow with three arrows. It is said that a bow is unfailing in giving a safe and sound journey.⁷ Thus the principal weapons that figure in this class of literature are bows and arrows. ### [c6.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.13) ⁷ K. Brāh. IV. 2. ### [c6.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.14) The Nītiprakāśikā mentions twelve kinds of arms under the mukta category. Among these the bow figures prominently and it still exists. It is four cubits in height, bent at three places and with a tusk-like opening.⁸ We are told that the bow-string should be taken by the right hand and bent by the left. The thumb should be placed on the arrow. Two strings are invariably used for a bow. The left-hand portion of the bowman must possess a defensive leather armour, and a quiver is to be hung from his neck. Fourteen different movements in the practice and use of this weapon are given.⁹ The word \*astra\* in the \*Śukranīti\* is interpreted by Dr. Oppert as a bow.¹⁰ But to interpret it as an arrow seems to be more correct.¹¹ The \*Agnipurāṇa\* furnishes details of a bow. The rod of a bow may be made of any of the three materials, steel, horn, or wood.¹² The strings may be made of the fibre of bamboo or other trees. The rod of a wooden bow was four cubits or six feet in length, and that of middling or inferior class measured a cubit less. Thick substances were wrapped round the grip so as to make the shaft of the bow steady and also easy. The bow made of steel must have a small grip, and its middle portion is said to resemble the eyebrow of a lady. It is usually made in parts, or together and inlaid with gold. The horns used in the making of bows are those of a buffalo, rhinoceros, or rohiṣa and of the mythical animal śarabha, while the wood is of sandal, sāla, cane, kukubha or dhabala. But the bamboo bow is the best of all. Arjuna’s Gāṇḍīva was perhaps of this material. While the bowstrings are of muñjā grass, arka plant, hemp, cavedu, bamboo and sinew, the rod of the bow may be of gold, silver or copper. Kauṭalya distinguishes four kinds of bows—Kārmuka made of palmyra, Kodaṇḍa of bamboo, Druna of darnwood and Dhanus of bone or horn. It may be noted in passing that the bow of Śrī Kṛṣṇa was of horn. ### [c6.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.15) ⁸ \*Niti.\*, II. 17 and IV. 8-9. ### [c6.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.16) ⁹ \*Ibid.\*, IV. 18-20. ### [c6.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.17) ¹⁰ \*Śukra\*, IV. 6-10. ### [c6.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.18) ¹¹ \*Ibid.\* The term \*astra\* means a missile, anything which is discharged. \*Āgneya astra\* means a fiery arm as distinguished from a firearm. For a firearm means any weapon projected by means of fire. ### [c6.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.19) ¹² \*Agni Purāṇa\*, 245. 5.6 and 7-10. ### [c6.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.20) According to Śivavyāsa Dhanur Veda, the measurement of a bow is given as 4 × 24 inches.¹³ In the Kodaṇḍa Maṇḍana the various characteristics of a bow are given. Eighteen kinds of bows are mentioned according as the strings are heavy or light.¹⁴ The various weights and measurements of the different kinds of bows are also given in it. The weight of a yogin’s14a cāpa or bow is two palas, of one practising or learning the science, is 300 palas, and the weight of that which is made of reeds 400 palas, that which could be hit with the bowstring is also 400 palas, that used in battle 700 palas, and that used from a distance 950 or 1,000 palas. Very heavy bows could not be used effectively. A description of the divine bow used only by celestials is then given. ### [c6.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.21) ¹³ Śāranga, 1748. ### [c6.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.22) ¹⁴ Fibres of murva, arka, śana, gavethu, veṇu and snāyu are mentioned by Kauṭalya. ### [c6.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.23) 14a One endowed with magical powers. ### [c6.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.24) It is said that the archer who uses bows as described in the Śāstras attains great glory.¹⁵ For example, Bhīṣma used a bow six cubits long against Śankha, a diocesan. That Kālidāsa is well acquainted with the use of the bow is seen from the Raghuvamśa. He refers to the twang of the bowstring of both Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa heard by Tāṭakā.¹⁶ Also in the Śakuntalam there are several references in which Duṣyanta is credited with high skill in archery.¹⁷ Thus the chief weapon of war in primitive days was the bow which was drawn to the ear, and not as in Greece, to the breast. Its use is not altogether extinct even now. The Khaśas or the hill tribes of Assam have a simple bow while the Western Nagas have a bullet bow. Incidentally we may speak of the crow-bow whose origin is attributed to Mongolia and which is now in popular use with the tribes of Indo-China.¹⁸ In Wilson's words, ‘the Hindus cultivated archery most assiduously and were very Parthians in the use of the bow on horse-back.’ One feature of this weapon was that it could be handled by all the four classes of warriors. ### [c6.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.25) ¹⁵ Kodaṇḍa, Ch. 5. ### [c6.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.26) ¹⁶ Raghu. 11.15; 12.103. 17 Śakun. II. 4 and 6. 18 See Man in India, (Aug. 1932). 19 1. 2. 4.: See also VI. 5.2.10. ### [c6.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.27) The arrow comes next. Its length is three cubits. Two movements are peculiar to it. How an arrow came to be designated śara is seen in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa,¹⁹ where it is stated that when Indra threw his thunderbolt against Vṛtra it became separated into four parts. The first three were the wooden sword (sphya), post (yūpa) and the chariot. The last piece which was broken off by the blow fell on the ground as a śara (arrow). Because it was broken it came to be so designated. There are also other references to it. What the arrow-head is to the arrow so is the Agni to the sacrifice.²⁰ The Kauṣitakī Brāhmaṇa mentions it as a part of the sacrificial fee.²¹ ### [c6.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.28) ²⁰ II. 3.3. ### [c6.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.29) ²¹ IV. 2. ### [c6.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.30) The making of arrows is described in the Agni Purāṇa as follows.²² They are made either of iron or bamboo, the latter well grained, of good vein, and of a golden colour.²³ It has feathers at the tail end and must be oiled so as to be easy of use. It also possesses gold-tipped points. Three kinds of arrows are distinguished, the best, the middling, and the inferior. Each must be discharged by holding its feathered end with the thumb. The shaft of the superior type of arrows measures 12 muṣṭis (perhaps one muṣṭi—one pala), of the middling one 11, and of the last 10 muṣṭis. Manu refers to these weapons also. Kālidāsa speaks of sharp, deep and strong shafts,²⁴ while Kauṭalya mentions five kinds, veṇu, śara, śalāka, daṇḍasāra, and nārāca.²⁵ Some are provided with iron points for cutting, bone points for rending, and wooden ones for piercing. A man who could pierce through metal plates half the thickness of a finger, or twenty-four layers of leather, was considered proficient.²⁶ ### [c6.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.31) ²² Agni Purāṇa, 245.12. ### [c6.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.32) ²³ According to the Harihara Caturanga they were made of tālatṛṇam, druma (śāla or vamśa), danta, śṛṅga of śarabha (Bk. v). In the Viṣṇudharmottara they are said to be made of metal, śṛṅga and dāru like vamśa or bamboo. This shows that in the passage of time, the old things were found useless and given up. The use of metal is significant and indicates the latest development in the art of war. It is worth noting that the Lakṣaṇaprakāśa quotes from a work Vaidyakatantra where a cāpa of saptāṅga (seven limbs) is considered auspicious, and from yet another work Traiyambika Dhanurveda which refers to ten kinds of cāpa (pp. 275-77). Most of them agree with the description given in the Vīracintāmaṇi Dhanurveda (Ibid., p. 279). ### [c6.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.33) ²⁴ Śakun. 1.10. ### [c6.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.34) ²⁵ Nārāca was a bāṇa made of metal. The term bāṇa in the time of Bhoja meant an arrow. Here the shaft was light but stiff with a sharp point. Vasiṣṭha speaks of nārāca made of iron, five- ### [c6.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.35) ²⁶ Ibid., p. 708. ### [c6.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.36) How to use both the bow and arrow is thus elaborately described.²⁷ Taking the arrow with the right and the bow with the left hand, the archer should string it. The feathered end of the arrow must be made to rest on it, leaving a small space between the string and the rod. The bow must be drawn to the ear, and to the full extent in a straight line. Care must be taken in discharging an arrow. The position he should take when aiming at a particular object must be a triangular one. But this is not the only position known to the science of archery. We have others also. The first is the Samapada or a standing position where the leg, the calf, the palm, and the thumb of the hands are closely knit against each other. The Vaiśākha consists in standing on tiptoe with thighs in a fixed position and a space between the two feet on the ground. The Maṇḍala is done by standing in a circular or semi-circular posture, leaving more space between the two feet than in the former. The Ālīḍha is a position where the right thigh and knee are to be kept steady while the left is drawn back. The Pratyālīḍha is the reverse of this position. That of Sthānam occupied on the whole the measurement equal to the fingers. In the Niścala the left knee was held ### [c6.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.37) ²⁷ Agni Purāṇa, 249. 9-19. ### [c6.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.38) sided and five-feathered. It is said that very few succeeded in shooting with a nārāca (I.H.Q., vii, p. 707). ### [c6.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.39) straight and the right knee bent. The Vikaṭa was where the right leg was placed straight and the Sampuṭa was where both the legs were raised and the knees were bent, while in the Svastika both legs were stretched straight, the feet protruding outside.²⁸ ### [c6.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.40) Arrian²⁹ speaks of one mode of equipping the Indian soldiers for war. The foot-soldiers invariably carried bows. Resting these on the ground and pressing them with the left foot, the soldier discharged the arrow. The shaft in use was about three yards in length. ‘There is nothing which can resist an Indian archer’s shot, neither shield nor breast-plate nor any stronger defence if such there be. On the left hand they carry bucklers of undressed hide. Some wear javelins in the place of bows, but all of them wear a sword with a broad blade about three cubits long. This they use only in close fight.’ ### [c6.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.41) It is interesting to examine side by side with these the weapons used in ancient Greece and Rome.³⁰ The missile used was the javelin or dart. But with later developments in archery on account of the shortness of its range it soon fell into disuse. There seem to have been different varieties of the bow, such as long bows and ### [c6.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.42) ³⁰ The \*Tutorial History of Greece\*, pp. 336-37. ### [c6.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.43) 28 The recent finds at Mohenjodaro and Harappa reveal a number of weapons of war in use in the Chalcolithic period. These are bows and arrows, axes, spears, daggers, maces, slings, and catapults. The sword is however conspicuous by its absence. Confining our attention for the present to the bow and arrow, and judging from a specimen of an arrow head made of copper and from the absence of stone arrow heads, we have to infer that these weapons were sparingly used. ### [c6.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.44) 29 \*Indika\* of Arrian (McCrindle). ### [c6.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.45) cross bows. To the Greek, Apollo was the bow-god. In Greece, bows were made of wool, horn, horse-hair, and even hide. But the disadvantages of such arrows and bows were experienced during winter, when they became relaxed and consequently became inefficient. In India in almost every war recorded either in the Purāṇic or Epic literature, bows and arrows loom very large. It would be interesting to recall the story of Prince Peerless from the Jātaka.³¹ ‘One day his king wanted to test his skill and asked him to bring down a cluster of mango fruits with an arrow from a tree beyond. On this he removed the white cloths which he had on and put on a red waist cloth and fastened his girdle. He equipped himself with a sword on his left side, a mail of gold, a bow with a red string and turban on his head and with arrow set to the bow, he asked the king whether he is to get the cluster with an upward shot or he is to make the arrow drop on it. The king who was not acquainted with the latter method suggested it. The arrow was discharged and down came both the cluster and the arrow, the latter making a terrible noise.’ ### [c6.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.46) ³¹ The Jātakas, Vol. II. 181 (Cowell). ### [c6.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.47) The prince caught the arrow in one hand and the cluster in the other so that they might not fall down on the ground. The king commended his skill and duly honoured him. From this it would appear that this great and useful military science was flourishing and received encouragement from the State. ### Section II: Fire Arms ### [c6.s1.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.2) In this connexion it would be interesting to examine the true nature of the āgneya-astras. Kauṭalya describes agni-bāṇa,³² and mentions three recipes—agni-dhāraṇa, kṣepyo-agni-yoga, and viśvāsaghāti. The agni-dhāraṇa is said to consist of small balls made of the dung of the ass, camel, goat and sheep, mixed with the wood of sarala (pinus longifolia), devadāru (deodar), the leaf of pūtitṛṇa (lemon grass), guggulu, śrīveṣṭaka (turpentine) and lac. The kṣepyo-agni-yoga was a fire arm consisting of ‘the dung of the horse, ass, camel or cattle, mixed with priyāla cūrṇa (buchanania latifolia), avalguja (vernonia authelmintica), lamp black and bees’ wax’. Viśvāsaghāti was composed of ‘the powder of all the metals as red as fire or the mixture of the powder of kumbhi, lead, zinc, mixed with the charcoal powder of the flowers of paribhadraka, palāśa and hair, and with oil wax and turpentine’. From the nature of the ingredients of the different compositions it would appear that they were highly inflammable and could not be easily extinguished. About the third and the last recipe, a recent writer remarks: ‘The Viśvāsaghāti-agni-yoga was virtually a bomb which burst and the fragments of metals were scattered in all directions. The agni-bāṇa was the fore-runner of a gun-shot…… Sometimes the metallic head of the arrow was made red-hot by charcoal fire and the hot arrow will prove more dangerous than the cool. The aboriginal tribes of Kols and Santals of Bengal and Bihar shoot bear with redhot arrows, which they say, kill the beasts while cool arrows prove ineffective. It is to be noted that among the war materials collected in the battlefield of Kurukṣetra charcoal was one’.³³ ### [c6.s1.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.3) ³² XIII. 4. In the Lalitopākhyāna of the Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa fire arms are mentioned as being used in the war with Bhaṇḍa. ### [c6.s1.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.4) ³³ Jogesh Chandra Ray: \*Fire Arms in Ancient India\*, \*I.H.Q.\*, viii, p. 268. 34 \*Ibid.\*, pp. 586-88. 35 I. 16.4. 36 I. 4.8. 37 I. 5. 38 XI, 103. ### [c6.s1.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.5) Intimately connected with this topic is the question whether the ancient Hindus knew the use of gunpowder and guns. Sir A. M. Elliot tells us that the Arabs learnt the manufacture of gunpowder from India, and that before their Indian connexion they had used arrows of naphtha. It is also argued that though Persia possessed saltpetre in abundance, the original home of gunpowder was India. It is said that the Turkish word \*top\* and the Persian \*tupang\* or \*tufang\* are derived from the Sanskrit \*dhūpa\*. The \*dhūpa\* of the Agni Purāṇa means a rocket, perhaps a corruption of the Kauṭalīyan term \*nāla dīpikā\*.³⁴ ### [c6.s1.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.6) In the light of the above remarks we shall trace the evolution of fire-arms in ancient India. Commencing our enquiry from the \*Ṛg Veda Saṃhitā\*, there is evidence to show that \*agni\* (fire) was praised for vanquishing an enemy. The \*Atharva Veda\* shows the employment of fire-arms with lead shots.³⁵ The \*Aitareya Brāhmaṇa\*³⁶ describes an arrow with fire at its tip. The term \*sūrmi\* in the \*Ṛg Veda\*,³⁷ considered in the light of its use as the death penalty for criminal offenders as in the \*Mānava-dharma-śāstra\*,³⁸ must have been of the nature of a hollow tube and has nothing to do with guns. ### [c6.s1.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.7) In the \*Mahābhārata\* and the \*Rāmāyaṇa\*, the employment of āgneyāstras is frequently mentioned, and this deserves careful examination in the light of other important terms like ayah, kanapa and tulā-guḍa. Though the commentator Nīlakaṇṭha would easily explain them away as guns, kanapa is perhaps the same as kuṇapa in the Matsya Purāṇa.³⁹ In the Daśakumāra-caritra the term is kanapa, and the reading of the Matsya Purāṇa perhaps may be faulty. The other term, tulā-guḍa which is said to produce a noise like thunder is difficult to explain.⁴⁰ Guḍa is perhaps the same as gula, meaning a ball projected by a lever (tula). In the Matsya Purāṇa ayoguḍa stands for a bullet of iron.⁴¹ ### [c6.s1.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.8) ³⁹ Ch. 149. v. 8. ### [c6.s1.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.9) ⁴⁰ Vana Parva, 42.5. ### [c6.s1.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.10) ⁴¹ Ch. 153. v. 133. ### [c6.s1.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.11) In the Epics again aurva figures as a fire-arm.⁴² Aurvāgni means subterranean fire, the invention of which was probably attributed to the sage Aurva. It cannot be taken seriously as a fire-arm and may fitly find a place among the mythical weapons of offence. We have spoken already of nārāca, and it is worthy of note that the term appears side by side with nālikā in the Epics.⁴³ Evidently they refer to two distinct types of metallic arrows. The nālikas were missiles often barbed. In later days the term meant guns. ### [c6.s1.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.12) ⁴² Mhb., Vana Parva, Ch. 82. ### [c6.s1.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.13) ⁴³ Rāmā., VI. 45.23; Mhb., Bhīṣma Parva, 106. 33. ### [c6.s1.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.14) The Śukranītisāra uses nālika in this sense and speaks of two kinds of nālikas, the large and the small. The latter was used by horsemen and footmen. The bigger variety which had no wooden stock was carried on wheels. The agnicūrṇa or gunpowder was composed of 4 to 6 parts of salt-petre, one part of sulphur, and one part of charcoal of arka, sruhi and other trees burnt in a pit and reduced to powder. Here is certain evidence of the ancient rockets giving place to actual guns in war-fare. From the description of the composition of gunpowder, a later date is ascribed to the composition of the Śukranīti which cannot stand close scrutiny. Be this as it may, the conclusion is unmistakable that guns were largely in use even not far after the beginning of the Christian era. In the Vāsiṣṭha Dhanurveda, a later work, nārāca, nālika, śataghni figure as fire-arms.⁴⁴ ### [c6.s1.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.15) ⁴⁴ See also Viracintāmaṇi Dhanurveda quoted in the Lakṣaṇa-prakāśa, p. 282. ### [c6.s1.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.16) A word may be said about the śataghna or śataghni. Śukra and Vasiṣṭha use this word in the sense of cannon. But it is doubtful whether in earlier times, for instance in the epoch of the Epics, it meant a cannon. Possibly it did not. In its literal sense it meant a machine able to kill a hundred men. It seems to have been a heavy column of stone or timber fixed with iron spikes on the ramparts of fortresses. Kauṭalya refers to it in this sense only. The ancient fortresses of Ayodhyā and Laṅkā had these machines provided on their ramparts.⁴⁵ There is the authority of the Harivaṃśa to indicate that there were smaller types of these machines carried in the hand. But these types do not find mention in the later military literature; the term used there unmistakably refers to cannon. It can therefore be safely concluded that these weapons, guns, and cannon were popular in India at the best before the advent of the Portuguese towards the close of the 15th century. ### [c6.s1.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s1.17) ⁴⁵ See P. C. Dharma: The Rāmāyaṇa, Polity, Madras (1941), pp. 72-73. ### Section III: Other Weapons ### [c6.s2.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.2) The Bhindipāla and the nine following are minor weapons of this class. Probably this was a heavy club which had a broad and bent tail end, measuring one cubit in length.⁴⁶ It was to be used with the left foot of the warrior placed in front. The various uses of this weapon were cutting, hitting, striking and breaking.⁴⁷ It was like a kunta but with a big blade.⁴⁸ It was used by the Asuras in their fight with Kārtavīrya Arjuna. ### [c6.s2.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.3) ⁴⁶ Niti., IV. 30-31. ### [c6.s2.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.4) ⁴⁷ Agni Purāṇa, 252. v. 15. ### [c6.s2.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.5) ⁴⁸ Ganapati Sastri, Vol. I. p. 252. ### [c6.s2.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.6) The next, śakti, is identified with the spear.⁴⁹ It was two cubits long and had an open and a broad mouth in shape like the leaf of a tree. Its ends resembled the udder of a cow and were four hastas in length. It required the use of both the hands. Six kinds of position regarding this are given. The blade was of metal and the handle of wood. This as well as the Bhindipāla are mentioned also by Kauṭalya. Kālidāsa puts its use for cutting open the body.⁵⁰ ### [c6.s2.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.7) ⁴⁹ Niti., IV. 32-35; Ganapati Sastri, Vol. I. p. 251; Raghu., 12.77. ### [c6.s2.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.8) ⁵⁰ The Auśanasa Dhanurveda gives more details. The śakti is said to be of three kinds—the best, middling and inferior. Their handle was again of four kinds—bamboo, wood, ivory and iron (See Lakṣaṇa Prakāśa, pp. 313 ff). ### [c6.s2.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.9) The Drughana, again in shape like the mudgara, is translated as a latchet by Dr. Oppert⁵¹ but probably was a wooden mace or a staff headed with a heavy spiked ball of iron, as is seen from the further details given in the stanza. Its length was from 4 feet to 2 inches, and it was put to four kinds of use. It is also mentioned by Kauṭalya. ### [c6.s2.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.10) ⁵¹ \*Niti.\*, IV. 36-37. ### [c6.s2.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.11) The Tomara is another weapon of war frequently mentioned in all kinds of warfare.⁵² It was of two kinds, an iron club (\*sarvāyasam\*) and a javelin (\*daṇḍa\*).⁵³ According to Vaiśampāyana it was a club three cubits long and capable of three different movements. According to the \*Agni Purāṇa\* it was to be with the help of an arrow of straight feathers, and was powerful in dealing blows on the eyes and hands of an enemy. But Kauṭalya's commentator says that it is a rod with an arrow-like edge. It was of three kinds, the inferior, the middling, and the best, according to their respective measurements, 4, 4½ or 5 hastas in length. ### [c6.s2.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.12) ⁵² \*Niti.\*, IV. 38-39; \*Agni Purāṇa\*, 252, v. 10; Ganapati Sastri, p. 252 (Pt. 1). ### [c6.s2.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.13) ⁵³ Auśanasa Dhanurveda quoted in \*Lakṣaṇa Prakāśa\*, pp. 311 ff. ### [c6.s2.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.14) The Nālikā⁵⁴ is a hand gun or musket rightly piercing the mark. It was straight in form and hollow inside. It discharged darts if ignited. As has been already said, Śukrācārya speaks of two kinds of nālikas, one big and the other small. The small one, with a little hole at the end, measured sixty angulams (i.e., distance between the thumb and the little finger) dotted with several spots at the muzzle end. Through the touch hole or at its breech which contained wood, fire was conveyed to the charge. It was generally used by foot-soldiers. But the big gun had no wood at the breech and was so heavy that it had to be conveyed in carts. The balls were made of iron, lead or other material. Kāmandaka uses the word nālika in the sense of a firing gun as a signal for the unwary king. Again in the Naiṣadha, a work of the mediaeval period, there is a beautiful stanza where the two brows of Damayantī are compared to the two bows of the god of love and goddess of love, and her two nostrils to the two guns capable of throwing balls. Thus there is clear evidence of the existence and use of firing guns in India in very early times. ### [c6.s2.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.15) ⁵⁴ \*Ibid.\*, 40-41; \*Śukra\*, IV, 7, 194-200; \*Kāman\*. V, 52; \*Naiṣadha\*, II. 28. ### [c6.s2.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.16) The Laguḍa was probably a cudgel or heavy staff with metallic feet.⁵⁵ It was two cubits long. It could be used in four different ways. It was sometimes put to the same uses as a Bhindipāla. It was cased in a sheath of leather and held either with both hands or only with the right hand. ### [c6.s2.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.17) ⁵⁵ Niti., IV. 42-43. ### [c6.s2.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.18) The next weapon is the Pāśa,⁵⁶ which is a noose killing the enemy at one stroke, of two or three ropes used as a weapon attributed to the god Varuṇa. It was triangular in shape and embellished with balls of lead. It was associated with three kinds of movements. Four different ways of throwing a noose are mentioned. In the Agni Purāṇa are described eleven ways of turning it to one's own advantage by dexterity of hand: some of them are turning back, advancing forward, using it lightly and also extraordinarily quickly and rending asunder. In this Purāṇa a noose is ten cubits long made of cotton, thread, muñja grass, leather, or sinews of animals. It may be thirty cubits long and folded up in three rings. It was held on the left side and then taken to the right and whirled over the head. It could be easily thrown from a horse in trot. It is said that by the performance of the Varuṇa-Prakāśas, the sons of Prajāpati were released from the noose of Varuṇa.⁵⁷ ### [c6.s2.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.19) ⁵⁶ Ibid., 45-46; Agni Purāṇa, ch. 252. vv. 5-8. ### [c6.s2.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.20) ⁵⁷ \*Kau. Brāh.\* V. 3. ### [c6.s2.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.21) The Cakra,⁵⁸ the next weapon in the category, is a circular disc with a small opening in the middle. It was of three kinds of eight, six and four spokes.⁵⁹ It was used in five or six ways. It resembled the quoit of the Sikhs to-day. The various uses of a disc were felling, whirling, rending, breaking, severing, and cutting. It is one of the instruments peculiar to Viṣṇu. Kauṭalya speaks of it as a movable machine. ### [c6.s2.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.22) ⁵⁸ \*Nīti.\* IV. 47-48; \*Agni Purāṇa\*, 252. vv. 5-7. ### [c6.s2.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.23) ⁵⁹ See Auśanasa Dhanurveda quoted in the \*Lakṣaṇa Prakāśa\*, pp. 309 ff. ### [c6.s2.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.24) The Dantakaṇṭa⁶⁰ is another weapon of war, perhaps of the shape of a tooth, made of metal, of strong handle and a straight blade. It had two movements. ### [c6.s2.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.25) ⁶⁰ \*Ibid.\*, IV. 49-50. ### [c6.s2.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.26) The Musuṇḍi⁶¹ is the last weapon in this category and was probably an eight-sided cudgel. It was furnished with a broad and strong handle. Its peculiar movements were whirling and jerking. It apparently comes from the root-meaning to cleave or break into pieces, and is perhaps akin to the Musala. ### [c6.s2.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.27) ⁶¹ \*Ibid.\*, IV. 51-52. In the Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa mention is made of Bhusuṇḍi. ### [c6.s2.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s2.28) All these weapons are found used in one battle or another both in the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. ### Section IV: The Amukta Weapons ### [c6.s3.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.2) We may now study the Amukta group of weapons, which are of twenty kinds according to Vaiśampāyana. Here also we shall try to follow the list. ### [c6.s3.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.3) The first was the Vajra or the thunderbolt. In the Tīrthayātra portion of the \*Mahābhārata\*⁶² a mythological origin is given to this weapon. It was made out of the backbone of the Ṛṣi Dadhīci which was freely given by him to Indra. Originally perhaps it had six sides and made a terrible noise when hurled. There seem to have been different varieties in the use of this weapon. In the \*Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa\*⁶³ the thunderbolt that Indra hurled against Vṛtra is described as having 1,000 spikes and 100 edges. The sacrificial post in the \*Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa\*⁶⁴ is referred to as a thunderbolt. Its breadth and length were fifty and a hundred miles respectively. It had sharp points and a good handle. Four movements are attributed to it. Sometimes the ends of this weapon were whirled round in such a way as to hold a bhindipāla in the middle. The Paṭṭiśa,⁶⁵ another weapon of war, is sometimes put to the uses of a Vajra. ### [c6.s3.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.4) ⁶² Vana Parva. 99. ### [c6.s3.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.5) ⁶³ I. 2.4. ### [c6.s3.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.6) ⁶⁴ X. 1. ### [c6.s3.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.7) ⁶⁵ Agni Purāṇa, 252. v. 16. ### [c6.s3.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.8) The Iṣu is translated as a hand sword by Dr. Oppert, but may be an arrow or a reed-like weapon. Halāyudha identifies it with Kāśāstra.⁶⁶ It had a bent front, and the whole measured two cubits in length. Four movements were associated with it. Perhaps Atikāya, the Rākṣasa, used it in his engagement with Lakṣmaṇa. ### [c6.s3.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.9) ⁶⁶ Raghu., 12.23; Niti. V. 7-8. ### [c6.s3.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.10) The Paraśu⁶⁷ is the battle-axe attributed to Paraśurāma, of great fame. Its blade was made of steel and it had a wooden handle. Another variety of it was a mighty staff holding the head of an ace at its end. Three kinds are distinguished.⁶⁸ It was used for cutting and rending. The Semitic origin assigned to this weapon of war cannot be taken as correct, for there is nothing in the Ṛg Vedic religion that has not an Aryan source.⁶⁹ The six ways of manipulating it to one's own advantage are raising aloft in a formidable manner, making it descend slowly or quickly, raising it rapidly, making it fixed, and making as if one had nothing in one's hand. The commentator on the Kauṭalīya says it is a scimitar and semi-circular and twenty-four inches long. ### [c6.s3.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.11) ⁶⁷ Ibid., V. 9-10. 68 Auśanasa Dhanurveda quoted in Lakṣaṇa Prakāśa, pp. 310-11. 69 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 88; Agni Purāṇa, 252. v. 13. 70 Niti, V. 11-14. ### [c6.s3.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.12) The Gośiras⁷⁰ is probably a spear resembling the shape of a cow-horn two feet in length. The lower portion is made of wood, and the upper of iron. Its action is five-fold. Tradition represents that Indra presented this weapon to Manu, the first king of the world. ### [c6.s3.13](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.13) The Asidhenu⁷¹ is a small dagger one cubit in length. It has three edges and is used in close fighting. Its handle is slender and small. Perhaps it is the same as the Asyaṣṭi of Kauṭalya. ### [c6.s3.14](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.14) The Lavitra⁷² is a sickle, an instrument used in mowing and reaping. It has a crooked shape, sharp at the end. It has a comparatively big handle. Both hands are used in hurling it. ### [c6.s3.15](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.15) ⁷² Ibid., 18-19. ### [c6.s3.16](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.16) The Astra⁷³ is associated with the boomerang, and has a long head at the top and a knot at the foot, with the middle bent. Whirling, drawing, and rending are its three movements. In the Madras Museum three boomerangs—two of ivory and one of wood—are exhibited. Dr. Oppert had drawn attention to these, and said that they were not of Australian origin but native to the soil and especially to South India, where the boomerang is known as vaḷaitaḍi or bent stick. ### [c6.s3.17](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.17) ⁷³ Ibid., 20-21. ### [c6.s3.18](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.18) The Kunta⁷⁴ is a lance and also a kind of barbed dart, six to ten cubits long. It can be manipulated in six ways. It is of iron and has six edges. Śukra speaks of ten hastas as its measurement, having the end of a ploughshare capable of opposing another dart. It is mentioned in the Ṛg Veda. According to Kautalya's commentator who seems to follow the Auśanasa Dhanurveda,⁷⁵ it is a wooden rod 5 to 7 hastas in length. It is of three kinds, the best, the middling, and the inferior, measuring 7, 6 and 5 hastas respectively. The Rājavijaya, however, mentions a tool of 11 hastas and 9 hastas.⁷⁶ ### [c6.s3.19](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.19) ⁷⁴ Nīti., 22-23; Śukra, IV, 7, 215; Ganapati Sastri, 252 (Vol. I). ### [c6.s3.20](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.20) ⁷⁵ Quoted in Lakṣaṇa Prakāśa, pp. 316 ff. ### [c6.s3.21](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.21) ⁷⁶ Quoted in Lakṣaṇa Prakāśa, p. 318. ### [c6.s3.22](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.22) The Sthūṇa⁷⁷ was a pillar-like instrument and has the height of a man with several knots at the top. Dr. Oppert speaks of it as an anvil. ### [c6.s3.23](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.23) ⁷⁷ Nīti., V. 24. ### [c6.s3.24](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.24) The Prāsa⁷⁸ measured four hastas and had a sharp face. Vaiśampāyana speaks of it as made of bamboo with a metallic head. It was handled in four ways. Its length was seven cubits. It figures also in the Ṛg Veda. Kauṭalya’s commentator speaks of it as 24 inches long with two handles. ### [c6.s3.25](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.25) ⁷⁸ Śukra, 4, 7, 214; Nīti., V. 25-26. ### [c6.s3.26](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.26) The Pināka⁷⁹ is the Śūla of Śiva, usually translated as a trident. It had three prongs made of iron and the front is of brass. It measured four cubits. Śukrācārya speaks of it as triśiras measuring three hastas. Its uses are striking, thrusting, rending, cutting to pieces, breaking, and severing. ### [c6.s3.27](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.27) ⁷⁹ Nīti., 27-29; Śukra, 4, 7, 215; Agni Purāṇa, 252. v. 9. ### [c6.s3.28](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.28) The Gadā⁸⁰ is a heavy rod of iron with one hundred spikes at the top. Three kinds are distinguished according to the Auśanasa Dhanurveda.⁸¹ One of four cubits was able to destroy elephants and rocks. It could be handled in twenty different ways. By means of gunpowder it could be used as a projectile weapon of war. Its principal use was to strike the enemy either from a raised place or from both sides and strike terror into the enemy especially of the Gomutra array. Various ways of handling it with skill were bending, stooping low, springing forward, retreating, ready to fly upon, and so doing as to generate fear. Kauṭalya includes it in his list of movable machines. ### [c6.s3.29](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.29) ⁸⁰ Nīti., V, 29-34; Śukra, 4, 7, 212; Agni Purāṇa, 252. v. 12. ### [c6.s3.30](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.30) ⁸¹ Quoted in Lakṣaṇa Prakāśa, p. 315. ### [c6.s3.31](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.31) The Mudgara⁸² was a staff in the shape of a hammer three cubits in length, and with a strong circular handle. The \*Amarakośa\* mentions it with the \*Durghaṇa\* mentioned above. It was used to break heavy stones and rocks. Śaṅkarācārya compares \*moha\* or magical delusion to a Mudagara in a short poem entitled \*Mohamudgara\*. It is sometimes used in the sense of a club to break down clods of earth. This is again a movable machine according to Kauṭalya. ### [c6.s3.32](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.32) ⁸² Nīti., V. 35-36; Raghu., 12-73; Kauṭalya (Tr.), 101. ### [c6.s3.33](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.33) The \*Sira\*⁸³ is translated as a ploughshare by Dr. Oppert. It was bucket-like instrument curved on both sides and with a wide opening made of iron. It was as long as a man's height. ### [c6.s3.34](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.34) ⁸³ \*Ibid.\*, V. 37. ### [c6.s3.35](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.35) The \*Musala\*⁸⁴ is a weapon of Balarāma. It was a pestle-like club, both ends well knit together. It was a pointed rod made of \*khadira\*. It belongs to the category of \*Śūla\* or trident. In the Rāma-Rāvaṇa yuddha, the Rākṣasas used Musalas of iron embellished with gold. ### [c6.s3.36](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.36) ⁸⁴ \*Ibid.\*, 38. ### [c6.s3.37](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.37) The \*Paṭṭiśa\*⁸⁵ is a kind of spear with a keen edge made of copper or iron. Dr. Oppert translates it as a battle-axe. This does not seem to be correct, because the same weapon is mentioned in the previous list. There was a hand-guard in the handle. It had two keen blades of iron and measured the height of a man. Mention is also made of it both in the \*Śukranīti\* and the \*Agni Purāṇa\*. Kauṭalya speaks of it as a razor-like weapon. ### [c6.s3.38](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.38) ⁸⁵ \*Ibid.\*, 39; \*Śukra\*, 4, 7, 212; \*Agni Purāṇa\*, 252. 16. ### [c6.s3.39](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.39) The \*Mauṣṭika\*⁸⁶ or fist-sword, may be a sharp knife perhaps used in boxing encounters. It had a strong handle and was capable of making all sorts of movements. It had a sharp end in the shape of a navel and was radiant as the moon. ### [c6.s3.40](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.40) ⁸⁶ \*Nīti\*, V. 40-44; 40-44; \*Śukra\*, 4, 7, 213. ### [c6.s3.41](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.41) The Parigha⁸⁷ was a wooden beam used for locking or shutting a gate, and was a battering ram. According to Vaiśampāyana it was made of wood and circular in shape. It was so heavy that a whole army of soldiers would be required to handle it. ### [c6.s3.42](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.42) ⁸⁷ Raghu., 16.84; Niti., V. 45. ### [c6.s3.43](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.43) The Mayūkhi,⁸⁸ or a staff with a hilt, had the height of a man and was furnished with small bells. A shield was also provided for it. ### [c6.s3.44](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.44) ⁸⁸ Niti., 46-47. ### [c6.s3.45](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.45) The Śataghni,⁸⁹ literally means that which had the power of killing a hundred at a time. It looked like a Gadā and is said to be four cubits in length. It had a strong handle, and also possessed a number of iron spikes in it. It is generally identified with the modern cannon and hence was a projectile weapon of war. Mallinātha quotes from Keśava in his commentary on the word occurring in the verse 95 of Chapter 12 of the Raghuvamśa: ### [c6.s3.46](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.46) ⁸⁹ Ibid., 48-49; Raghu., 12. 95; Ar. Śās., (Trn.) 101. ### [c6.s3.47](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.47) śataghni tu catustāla lohakaṇṭaka samcitā yaṣṭiḥ! iti Keśavaḥ. ### [c6.s3.48](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.48) It was generally placed on the walls of a fort and is included among the movable machines by Kauṭalya. These and other weapons are frequently mentioned as employed actually in the wars of the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata. Thus both the mukta and amukta weapons are 32 in number, all made according to tradition from the bones of the sage Dadhīci as explained in the Mahā- bhārata. They were made out of the bones of his body except the backbone, of which was formed the Vajra. But in the Amukta category an important weapon of war, the Asi or the sword,⁹⁰ is not included. Its omission is due, not to the lack of knowledge, for Vaiśampāyana has practically devoted a whole chapter to its description, but to the fact that it has been referred to elaborately enough in a previous chapter. Vaiśampāyana thought it unnecessary to repeat it here. Or it may be that it was such a useful celestial weapon that it had to be treated separately and not along with the ordinary weapons that are given in the list. The Asi⁹¹ is also known in Sanskrit literature by different other names—Nistrimśa, Viśamana, Khaḍga, Tīkṣṇadhāra, Durāsada, Śrīgarbha, Vijaya, and Dharmamūla, meaning respectively cruel, fearful, powerful, fiery, unassailable, affording wealth, giving victory, and the source of maintaining dharma. And these are generally the characteristics of a sword. It was commonly worn on the left side and was associated with thirty-two different movements. It measured fifty thumbs in length and four inches in width. ### [c6.s3.49](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.49) ⁹⁰ Niti., III. ### [c6.s3.50](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.50) ⁹¹ For the practical uses of the weapon see Lakṣaṇa Prakāśa, p. 293. ### [c6.s3.51](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.51) It is of particular interest to read the legendary origin of the sword. Nakula, the best swordsman of his day, asked Bhīṣma on his death-bed how it came into being. The following is the substance of what Bhīṣma said in reply.⁹² Brahmā created all creatures and also the Vedas. But the Asuras never paid heed to these and often had recourse to evil ways. The people could no more bear their misdeeds and prayed to Brahmā for help. Then he made a great sacrifice. Out came from the sacrificial fire an ugly creature at which the whole world trembled. It soon changed into a sword lustrous and sharp-edged. It was given to Rudra who single-handed cut and pierced a mighty host of the Asuras. After this Rudra gave this weapon to Viṣṇu, who in his turn presented it to Marīci, from whom it successively came into the hands of Vasava, the Lokapālas, Manu, his son Ikṣvāku, and Purūruvas. Then it changed several hands such as Nahuṣa, Yayāti, Bharata, Raghu, Bharadvāja, Droṇa, Kṛpa, and from this last to the Pāṇḍavas. It had for its star the Kṛttikā Nakṣatra. Its presiding deity was Agni, the god of fire. It belonged to the Rohiṇī community and its first preceptor was Rudra himself. Hence all soldiers were to worship this weapon of weapons. ### [c6.s3.52](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.52) ⁹² Śānti and Āpad Parva. 166. Compare this account with that given in the Viṣṇudharmottara. ### [c6.s3.53](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.53) The Purāṇic literature knows of different varieties of swords.⁹³ Those which were manufactured in Khaṭi and Khaṭṭara were famous for their lustre, those of Kaiśika for power in felling, of Sūrpāraka for durability, and of Vanga and Anga for sharpness. The best swords were those which measured fifty fingers in length. The rest were inferior. The inferior ones must not be used. The test of a good sword was that it must not only be sufficiently long but when used in any way must produce a ring sound. The sword that had an end like the edge of a lotus was an auspicious one. The sword was generally worn on the left side hanging from the belt, the scabbard being held in the left hand. The use of it consisted in rending, cutting, lopping, and striking the enemy. The \*Śukranīti\* speaks of it as four \*hastas\* in measurement and of keen edges. A sword was valuable for the acquisition of wealth, kingdom, fame and the destruction of the enemy. A sword was to be made of iron and was of the colour of the cuckoo's neck. Its blade should be like the petal of a lotus. It should be deep inside, bulging in the middle, with keen edges and with no blot of any kind; natural symbols were also said to be visible on it from which its value could be determined. So whenever kings used it they should get it previously examined as to its qualities.⁹⁴ ### [c6.s3.54](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.54) ⁹³ Agni Purāṇa, 245. 22-27. The Lakṣaṇa Prakāśa gives extracts on this subject from two works, Lohārṇava and Khaḍgakośa, pp. 295-97. ### [c6.s3.55](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.55) ⁹⁴ \*Agni Purāṇa\*, 251. 7.8; and 252 Ref.; \*Śukra\*, 4-7-214. ### [c6.s3.56](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.56) There is a different kind of measurement given in the texts. The best sword measured fifty inches, a middling one forty inches, and the least good thirty-six inches.⁹⁵ Those which were cracked, basket-like, and of broken edges, perforated, devoid of handle, and crooked were not fit for practical use. Those in which the Linga, Garuḍa, swan, and other auspicious and artistic images could be seen were good. They were usually made of Pandrara iron found in the Jāngala country, black iron in the Anūpa, white iron in the Śataharaṇa, gold-coloured iron in the Kalinga, oily iron in the Kambhoja, blue-coloured iron in Gujarat, grey-coloured in the Mahārāṣṭra, and reddish white in the Karṇāṭaka.⁹⁶ More details are seen in the same taranga. According to Kauṭalya again, Nistrimśa, Madantagara, and Asiyaṣṭi are swords and their handles were made of horn, tusk, or wood. It is interesting to examine in this light the several swords of Arjuna, such as the long sword with the bee mark, a big sword finished with good blade and a sheath of tiger skin, one with a golden hilt cased in cow-skin, a gold sword manufactured by the Niṣādhas and cased in goat-skin, an iron sword with gold points, all without any stain or knot in them.⁹⁷ ### [c6.s3.57](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.57) ⁹⁵ The sword of fifty inches is named, according to \*Devipurāṇa\*, Triśikha (see \*Lakṣaṇa Prakāśa\*, p. 299). See also Varāhasamhita for more details; \*Ibid.\*, pp. 299 ff; \*Loharatnākara\*, \*ibid.\*, pp. 305 ff. ### [c6.s3.58](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.58) ⁹⁶ \*Śārngadhara\*, 4621, 26, 38, 44, 52-60 and 4689. \*Śiva T. R.\* 5—9th sarga. ### [c6.s3.59](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s3.59) ⁹⁷ Mhb., Virāṭ Parva, 42. 21. ### Section V: Minor and Mystical Weapons of Warfare ### [c6.s4.2](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s4.2) Any detailed examination of the other species of weapons would unduly swell this volume; we therefore confine ourselves to a categorical enumeration of the list as given in the Nitiprakāśikā. There are two classes of the Muktāmukta division—Sopasamhāra (throwing out) and Upasamhāra (withdrawing). There are forty-three varieties of Sopasamhāra: Daṇḍacakra (a disc),⁹⁸ Dharmacakra (a disc for maintenance of righteousness), Kālacakra (a disc of death), Aindracakra (a disc attributed to Indra), Śūlavata (a trident attributed to Śiva), Brahmaśirṣa (a missile assigned to Brahmā), Modakī (a bewitching missile), Śikharī (a pointed missile to cut off the head), Dharmapāśa (a noose for maintenance of righteousness), Varuṇapāśa (a noose attributed to Varuṇa), Pinākāstra (a bow attributed to Śiva), Vāyavya (a missile of Vāyu), Śuṣka (a missile to dry up), Ārdra (a missile for drenching), Śikharāstra (a missile emitting flame), Krauñcāstra (a heron-like missile), Hayaśiraṣa (a missile in the form of a horse), Vidyāstra (a missile of incantation), Avidyāstra (a missile of illusory powers), Gāndharvāstra (a missile attributed to Viṣṇu), Nandanāstra, Varṣaṇam (a shower producing missile), Śoṣaṇam (a missile attributed to God of Love), Prasvāpana (a missile causing deep sleep), Praśamana (a soothing missile), Santāpana (a death-giving missile), Vilāpana (a noisy missile), Madana (a trust-giving missile), Mānavāstra (a missile peculiar to Manu), Nāmana (a missile of air-force), Tāmasa (a missile engendering darkness), Samvarta (a missile throwing a screen or a veil), Mausala (a club-shaped missile), Satya (a celestial missile), Saura (a missile attributed to the Sun God), Māyāstra (an illusory missile), Tvāṣṭra (a missile peculiar to Viśvakarma), Somāstra (a missile peculiar to the Moon), Samhāra (a missile causing impediments), Mānasa (a missile attributed to Viṣṇu), Nāgāstra (a serpent-shaped missile), Gāruḍāstra (an eagle-shaped missile), and Śaiveṣika (a missile of stone). ### [c6.s4.3](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s4.3) ⁹⁸ II. 22-27. ### [c6.s4.4](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s4.4) The second class of this Muktāmukta division, \*i.e.\* Upasamhāra, contains a list of fifty-three different weapons.⁹⁹ These are Satyavān (perhaps a missile that would act according to one's wish), Satyakīrti (a missile probably famous in the Satyaloka), Rabhasa (a missile of violent quickness), Dṛṣṭa (a missile shaped like the shaft of a carriage), Pratihāratara (a missile for preventing an attack), Avāngmukha (a missile with its face turned downwards), Parāngmukha (one with the shape of a leaf or a tree), Dṛṭhanābha (a navel-shaped missile), Alakṣya (a missile discharged with no aim), Lakṣya (one discharged with some aim), Āvila (one in the shape of an ewe), Sunābhaka (one with a strong focus at the centre), Daśākṣa (one with ten cavities or openings), Śatavaktra (one with a hundred mouths), Daśaśīrṣa (one with ten-headed missile), Śatodara (one with hundred cavities), Dharmanābha (a navel-shaped missile for maintaining righteousness), Mahānābha (one having a big central point), Dundhunābha (one with the central point like a drum), Nābhaka (one like the nave of a wheel), Jyotiṣa (a lustrous missile), Vimalakula (a pure missile), Nairāsya (one engendering discouragement at the outset), Kṛśana (a small missile), Yogandhara (one of superhuman powers), Sanidra (one attributed to Indra), Daitya (one peculiar to the Asuras), Pramathana (a slaughtering missile), Sārcirmālī (one in the shape of a garland), Dhṛtirmālī (that could be seized or laid hold of), Vṛttimān (one that would move and turn), Rucira (a restorative missile), Pitrya (one in shape like the constellation Magha), Saumanasa (a floral missile), Vidhūta (an unsteady missile), Makara (one in the shape of the crocodile), Karavīra (a sword or scimitar), Dhanaratī (one giving wealth), Dhānya (one affording grains), Kāmarūpaka (one that takes a shape at will), Jṛmbaka (a wide-mouthed missile), Āvaraṇa (one serving as a protection), Moha (one producing spell), Kāmaruci (one acting to one’s wish), Vāruṇa (one attributed to Varuṇa), Sarvadamana (the all-subduing one), Sandhāna (a well-aimed missile), Sarvanābhaka (one like a serpent), Kankālāstra (one with heron’s feathers), Mausalāstra (a pestle-like missile), Kāpālāstra (a skull-like missile), Kankaṇa (one resembling the bracelet) and Paiśācāstra (a devilish missile).¹⁰⁰ ### [c6.s4.5](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s4.5) ⁹⁹ II. 28-35. ### [c6.s4.6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s4.6) ¹⁰⁰ II. 28-35. ### [c6.s4.7](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s4.7) This is a literal translation of the names which occur in the texts. To the list here given, Vaiśampāyana adds six more weapons which could be used only with the application of mantras—the Viṣṇucakra, the Vajra, (the thunderbolt), the Brahmāstra (attributed to Brahmā), the Kālapaśaka (the noose of Yama), the Nārāyaṇāstra (attributed to Nārāyaṇa), and the Pāśupatāstra (attributed to Śiva). ### [c6.s4.8](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s4.8) Viśvāmitra,¹⁰¹ to whom the Dhanurveda is attributed seems to have had a working knowledge of most of these weapons. Besides those mentioned above, Viśvāmitra adds the Tejahprabha (lustrous), the Śiśira (frigid), the Kinkini (Kankana) (with tinkling sound), and the Dāruṇa of Bhaga (a terror-striking missile). In the second class of Upasamhāra again Viśvāmitra adds Śucirbāhu, Mahābāhu, Niṣkuli, and Viruci, having respectively the characteristics of a good hand, a long hand, a niṣka, an ornament and fire. ### [c6.s4.9](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s4.9) ¹⁰¹ Rāmāyaṇa, Bālakāṇḍa, Chh. 27 and 28. ### [c6.s4.10](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s4.10) Among the thirty-two Mukta and Amukta weapons, Kauṭalya, as we have seen, mentions the Śakti, the Prāsa, Kunta, Bhindipāla, Tomara, bows and arrows, Paraśu, Paṭṭiśa, Cakra, Mudgara, Gadā, and the Śataghnī. The other nineteen are not mentioned. But he gives different kinds of weapons, the Hāṭaka, the Śūla, the Varāhakarṇa (another form of Prāsa), the Kaṇaya (a metallic rod), the Karpaṇa (an arrow that can go one hundred hastas in length), the Trāsika (a rod with three edges), the Kuthāra (a small one with one edge), the Khanitra (a spade), the Kuddāla and the Kāṇḍacchedana, the Yantrapāṣāṇa (stones thrown by machines), the Goṣpa-ṇapāṣāṇa (stones thrown by rod), the Muṣṭipāṣāṇa, the Rocanī, and stones, besides 27 kinds of movable and immovable machines. Apparently the other weapons mentioned in the Nītiprakāśikā had gone out of use by the time of Kauṭalya.¹⁰² ### [c6.s4.11](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s4.11) ¹⁰² Ar. Śās., Bk. II. 18. ### [c6.s4.12](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6.s4.12) The Arthaśāstra again mentions twenty-seven machines of which only five—the Musala, the Mudgara, the Cakra, the Gadā and the Śataghnī—are referred to by Vaiśampāyana. Another important fact that we gather is that in the time of Kauṭalya the forts must have become indispensable sources of defence, military architecture being highly developed. The ten immovable machines mentioned by Kauṭalya are not found in the early literature, from which it can be safely inferred that fortifications had not developed to any great extent in the days of the Nītiprakāśikā. The immovable machines, according to the author of the Arthaśāstra,¹⁰³ are Sarvatobhadra (a small cart capable of hurling stones on all sides), Jāmadagnya (a large machine to shoot arrows), Bahumukha (one with archers), Viśvāsaghāti (a cross beam at the gateway so placed as to make it fall when the enemy enters), Saṅghāti (a long pole to set fire to the fort), Yānaka (a rod mounted on a wheel to be hurled against enemies), Parjanyaka (a water-machine to put out fire), Bāhu (two pillars placed opposite each other to be pulled down when enemies enter) and Ardhabāhu (a pillar measuring half of the above). Again, the following movable machines are given: Pāñcālika (a wooden beam with sharp points outside the fort wall), Devadaṇḍa (a pole with nails), Sūkārika (a leather wall to protect the roads, towns, etc. against stones thrown by enemies), Yaṣṭi (a pointed rod of khadira), Hastivāraka (a rod with two or three points to prevent elephants from resting on), Tālavṛnta (a form like that of disc), Spṛktalā (a rod with sharp points on its surface), Kuddāla (a spade), Sphāṭima (a leather bag with a rod), Audaghātima (a machine to pull down towers, etc.) and Triśūla (a trident). There is ample testimony to indicate that some of the machines were employed in actual operations: the missile Tastra was used by the son of king Śatrujit against Pātālaketu and other demon warriors.¹⁰⁴ In the battle between Śālva Rāja and Bhīṣma both Varuṇa and Aindra weapons were used.¹⁰⁵ Again, Arjuna used the Vāyavya weapon in his encounter with the Nāgas, and it had the power of staying thunder, lightning, winds, and several other forces.¹⁰⁶ He also used Salila and Śaila weapons to ward off illusions of fire and wind from the Nivāta-kavacas.¹⁰⁷ Droṇa used the Aindra, Vāyavya and Āgneya astras during the Great War,¹⁰⁸ while his son employed Nārāyaṇāstra in another encounter.¹⁰⁹ The other weapons used by Arjuna are the Nāga missile, the Saupada, the Indrajāla, Sthūlakarṇa, the Pāśupata, and the Bhārgava.¹¹⁰ Arjuna also used the Māhendra mentioned as a fire-arm in the great epic literature. Rāma employed, besides the above, the Brahmadatta bāṇa.¹¹¹ In the engagement between Lakṣmaṇa and Atikāya, the latter used the Rudra and the Nārāyaṇa missiles, while the former used the Brahmaśiras.¹¹² In the battie between Angada and the Rākṣasa Kampaṇa, several missiles, like the Kṣuras, Kṣurapras, Vatsadantas, Śilīmukhas, Karṇicalyas, and Vipāthas are found used.¹¹³ _First 158 of 293 passages. [Read on](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6)_ ## Linked texts (55) - [Mahābhārata](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.mahabharata.vyasa.3.42.5) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Agnipurāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana.agni.249.2) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Raghuvaṃśa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.kavya.mahakavya.rama.raghuvamsa.12.77) — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit - [Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.ramayana.valmiki.6.45.23) — Vālmīki, Sanskrit - [Matsyapurāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana.matsya.149.8) — Vyāsa, Sanskrit - [Kauṣītakibrāhmaṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.brahmana.kausitaki.5.3) — Kauṣītaki, Sanskrit - [Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.artha.kautilya.13.4) — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit - [Ṛgvedasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.rg.1.184.3) — Sanskrit - [Naiṣadhīyacarita](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.kavya.mahakavya.bharata.naisadhiyacarita.2.28) — Śrīharṣa, Sanskrit - [Nītiprakāśikā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.artha.nitiprakasika.2.11) — Vaiśampāyana, Sanskrit - 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[Ἰνδικά](https://indike.org/pramana/inf.gr.hellenistic.megasthenes) — Μεγασθένης, Ancient Greek - [Purāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana) — Sanskrit - [Atharvavedasaṃhitā](https://indike.org/pramana/in.veda.samhita.atharva) — Atharvan & Aṅgiras, Sanskrit - [Epigraphia Carnatica](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.epigraphy.corpora.ec) - [Abhijñānaśākuntala](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.plays.sakuntala) — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit - [Sāñcī](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.sanchi) - [Bharhut](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.bharhut) - [Konark Sun Temple](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.monument.konark-sun-temple) - [Hoysaleswara Temple](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.monument.hoysaleswara-temple) - [Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.monument.udayagiri-and-khandagiri-caves) - [Ayodhyā (Sāketa)](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.ayodhya) - [Brihadishwara Temple](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.brihadishwara-temple) - [Hazara Rama temple](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.monument.hazara-rama-temple) - [Mahabalipuram](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.mahabalipuram) - [Waruna](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.waruna) - [Lanka](https://indike.org/pramana/inp.site.lanka) - [Kāmandakīya Nītisāra](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.artha.kamandaka_nitisara.5.52) — Kāmandaki, Sanskrit - [Śivatattvaratnākara](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.rajadharma.sivatattvaratnakara) — Basappa Nāyaka 1684, Sanskrit - [Śārṅgadharapaddhati](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.subhasita.subhasita.kosa.sarngadharapaddhati) — Śārṅgadhara, Sanskrit - [Hariharacaturaṅga](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.artha.hariharacaturanga) — Godāvara Miśra, Sanskrit - [Lakṣaṇaprakāśa (Mitramiśra)](https://indike.org/pramana/in.niti.dharma.nibandha.laksanaprakasa) — Mitramiśra, Sanskrit - [Uttararāmacarita](https://indike.org/pramana/in.lit.plays.rama.uttararamacarita) — Bhavabhūti, Sanskrit - [Devīpurāṇa](https://indike.org/pramana/in.purana.upa.sakta.devi) — Sanskrit --- Source: [https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6](https://indike.org/pramana/ins.polity.dikshitar-1944.c6) · Pramāṇa